3. The following documents were consulted in preparing this section of the paper: Manderson et al (1996); OECD (1998); WHO (1998).
Gender refers to women and men's roles and responsibilities, which are socially/culturally determined in contrast to sex, which refers to genetic and biological characteristics of a person. It also refers to the norms associated with characteristics, abilities and behaviours of both women and men. These roles and norms are diverse and dynamic; varying between cultures/societies and over time.
Gender is not homogenous. It needs to be further differentiated into other categories which society uses to organise social relationships, such as age, race/ethnicity and class.
This examines the different disparities in the roles that women and men play, the power imbalances in their relationships, their needs, constraints and opportunities and the impact of the differences in their lives. With regard to human health, a gender analysis examines how these differences determine differential exposure to risk, access to the benefits of technology, information, resources and health care, and the realisation of rights.
In the context of policy, planning, and research, gender responsiveness refers to a consistent and systematic response to gender inequalities and differences with the objective of achieving gender equality in access and results.
Strategic needs and gender mainstreaming are two concepts which are helpful in operationalising gender responsiveness. While gender analysis also includes women's practical needs, currently emphasis must be placed on women's strategic interests in the context of unequal gender relations and on the promotion of structural change to improve the position of women.
Moser (1993) uses the terms 'practical gender needs', and 'strategic gender needs' in reference to those terms. The integrationist, or practical approach addresses immediate basic needs, such as living conditions, health care and employment, but does not address the power differentials between men and women in society. The strategic approach, in contrast, focuses on gendered divisions of labour, power and control.
Gender mainstreaming institutionalises ideas and practices in order to support the goal of gender equality. Gender equality is the absence of discrimination on the basis of a person's sex in opportunities and the allocation of resources or benefits or in access to services. Confusion has arisen because strictly speaking the term 'equal' means 'same.' Were the two sexes to be equal there would not be two sexes, but rather one. However, those who prefer the term, 'equality' focus on the provision of equal access to opportunities and resources for both men and women. Implicit is the ability of women and men to participate in all aspects of development, including decision-making.
Gender equity refers to fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities between women and men. Women and men have different need, and varying control and power to meet these needs. The disparate differences in ability to meet these needs must be addressed in a way that corrects the imbalance between women and men.
Gender equality is a more accurate term because it recognises that some men are also marginalised due to other social factors, such as class, race/ethnicity. Furthermore, everyone, men and women, need to be involved in problem-solving to redress social policies that do not contribute to sustaining ecosystems.
Most importantly, gender equality does not presume that there is one global model for gender equality. However, men and women must have equal participation and voice in determining what gender equality means in their social/cultural context and how that can be achieved through co-operation.
The disaggregation of data by gender is a necessary, but not sufficient activity for useful gender analysis. In any situation, health statistics, including specific health impact of different types of livelihood and lifestyle and interventions need to be disaggregated by gender and age. Toolkits or simple manuals may help the researcher ask some of the correct questions, but even those approaches require adaptation because situations differ. Below are some issues and specific questions to keep in mind when doing gender analysis. Some of the issues discussed are designed to help women, children and marginalised men feel comfortable speaking in public. Others focus on concepts such as the difference between equality and equity. Triangulation of data using different methods or ways to ask the same question is very useful in this type of research. A combination of qualitative methods along with a healthy skepticism with regard to available statistics will also help to illuminate the situation.
Societies assign different roles, responsibilities, and activities to women and men according to cultural norms. This is the gender division of labour. The work they do tends to be different in nature and in the way it is valued. These differences are central to gender relations.
Work can be put into three categories: productive, reproductive and community support and maintenance. Productive work generates income or meets basic needs, such as food, water and shelter. Reproductive work consists of giving birth and caring for children, preparing food, caring for those who are ill and teaching or providing information to the young. Community work supports the maintenance of the community both practically and in spirit. Examples include preparing for and participation in community rituals and meetings.
Women's subordinate position can limit their access to and control over resources and benefits. In some situations, women may have ACCESS (opportunity to make use of something) to resources and benefits, but no CONTROL (the ability to define its use and impose that definition on others). For example, women may use the milk of cows to make cheese, but have no control over the money received from selling the cheese.
Gender relations, including the division of labour, the type of work women and men do, and their different levels of access and control, can change over time depending on changes in the economy, environment, religion, culture, and political situation.
There is a difference in the day to day condition of women's lives and their position relative to men in society. Condition is the woman's immediate sphere of experience; in terms of the work she does, where she lives and gets basic needs for herself and her children such as clean water, food and education. Position refers to women's social and economic standing relative to men. It is measured, for example, by male/female disparities in wages and employment opportunities, participation in civil society, vulnerability to poverty and violence. Development activities have focussed on women's condition so they can carry out traditional roles and responsibilities, but it has been much more difficult to enhance women's position so they are better able to participate fully with men as agents of development and change.
Practical needs ensure family survival and are prerequisites to women's ability to deal with strategic interests which are key to sustainable development.
Sustainable, gender sensitive policies require women's and men's involvement as participants, beneficiaries and agents of change. This involvement does not come passively, but requires strategies to overcome barriers to involvement. For example, many poorly educated women only speak in the vernacular whereas public meetings are often held in dominant, official languages. In addition, child care, separate meeting facilities from men, as well as transportation may be a requirement if women are to be involved in consultations.
Women's subordinate position is not static and is not experienced in the same way by every woman. Historically and around the world, women have challenged gender inequality and the limits it poses on their potential as human beings. Significant changes have been made through the work of women, sometimes with men's support. Examples of this are women's involvement in participatory assessments and water projects, women voting, education of women and young girls, and access to birth control.
