M. Abu-Zanat
Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
Jordan is a small country of 8.93 million hectares, situated near the south-eastern coast of the Mediterranean, with a population of approximately 4.1 million. The annual growth rate is 3.4%. It has limited natural resources and is classified by the World Bank as a lower-middle-income economy. The country can be divided into three regions: the highlands, which run from north to south, with altitude varying from 600 to 1600 m above sea level and a generally wet and cool climate; the Jordan Valley, which forms part of the Great Rift, stretching 104 km from the Yarmouk River in the north to the Dead Sea in the south, and lying between 200 and 400 m below mean sea level; and the desert in the east, which is an extension of the Arabian Desert and covers nearly two-thirds of the country.
The agricultural sector plays a significant role in the economy, contributing about 8% of the GDP and 15% of export earnings, and employing approximately 10% of its labour force. In 1996, the value of the livestock subsector was estimated to be around 450 million Jordanian dinar (US$ 1 = JD 0.7), and its contribution to the agricultural sector was more than 55% (MA 1997). Only about 330,000 ha of the 890,000 ha of cultivable land, 10% of Jordan’s total area, are used for agriculture, for reasons that include lack of rainfall, insufficient water for supplementary irrigation, lack of finance for land rehabilitation and the encroachment of urbanisation. Range covers 78% of the total area and forests 1.5%.
Rapid population growth and the improvement in the standard of living have increased the demand for milk and meat, but there has been little improvement in productivity or in the efficient utilisation of resources. An analysis of current livestock production systems within each agroecological zone is expected to yield valuable information on existing constraints to production, which can be used to define research strategies and priorities and to identify opportunities for improving the efficiency of current systems. This step is essential for allocating resources for research, building research teams, and encouraging appropriate livestock production within each agro-ecological zone.
The different agro-ecological zones in Jordan have been described by Abu-Zanat (1995).
The semi-desert zone covers about 8 million hectares of rangelands, or Badia, divided into two main categories, desert and steppe. The desert rangelands, in the east and north, occupy 75% of the total area, with less than 100 mm of annual rainfall, while the steppe rangelands lie mainly east of the desert road, with annual rainfall between 100 and 200 mm. Sheep production is the main activity in these areas. Sheep and goats graze the forage produced on desert rangelands during short periods following rainfall. Steppe rangelands are generally used for grazing, although sizeable areas are now cultivated.
Under the 1973 Agricultural Land Law, over 90% of the rangelands in the steppe are privately owned and continuous ploughing has resulted in serious degradation and erosion of the soil. The remaining 10%, which are state owned, are normally grazed by local sheep flocks. Adjacent to the steppe rangelands, a strip between 10 and 25 km wide is privately owned and mostly used for opportunistic cereal production; a parallel area, 15 to 30 km wide, is owned by the tribes and is partially cultivated. The rest of the rangeland in the desert, with rainfall of 80 mm, although claimed by the tribes, is open to all Jordanian and non-Jordanian flocks (FAO 1991; Juneidi and Abu-Zanat 1993; Khalidi 1993).
Approximately 100,000 ha of rangeland are irrigated, mainly in the north, between the Mafraq to As-Safawi road and the Syrian border, and in the south, between Al-Mudawarrah and Wadi Rum. Water from artesian wells is used to grow cereals, vegetables and fruit trees.
Forage production is estimated to average about 340,000 t dry matter (DM) but is highly variable from year to year. Forage from desert rangelands is available between mid-January and early April, and from the steppe between January and mid-April and again between mid-September and mid-November, when it is mostly browse from shrubs.
The arid zone covers about 560,000 ha east of a line from Mafraq in the north to Ma’an in the south, excluding the semi-humid and semi-arid zones. It includes most of the villages where settled owners keep their flocks during winter. Barley, with an average grain production of 300–700 kg/ha, is the main crop in areas where annual rainfall is between 200 and 250 mm. In areas with 300-350 mm of annual rainfall, cereals, mainly barley, and some types of fruit trees are cultivated. Sheep and goat flocks graze most of the vegetation around the cultivated areas and return to them after harvest to graze the stubble at a cost of JD 20–30/ha. In dry years, the sheep and goats graze immature green barley at a cost of JD 30–50/ha. Estimated production is 60,000 t of barley grain (25% x area of arid zone x 500 kg/ha), 80,000 t of straw, and 10,000 t DM forage.
The semi-arid zone covers approximately 130,000 ha, between the Yarmouk River in the north and Madaba in the south, the northern valleys in the west, and Jerash and Amman in the east. Areas with slopes of less than 9% are usually cultivated with wheat followed by summer vegetables, and those with slopes between 9% and 25% are used for fruit trees, mainly olives. Areas where the average slope exceeds 25% are used for grazing, forestry and fruit trees. Estimated forage production from the mountainous areas is about 13,500 t DM.
The semi-humid zone of about 980,000 ha is located around Irbid and Ajloun in the north, and around Salt in the centre. Wheat is cultivated on flat areas, olive and fruit trees in areas with slope between 9% and 25%. There are about 40,000 ha of forest in areas where the slope exceeds 25%. Estimated forage production is about 12,000 t DM.
The Ghors, covering around 100,000 ha, comprises the Jordan River Valley and the southern Ghors. It is the most important zone in Jordan for vegetable, citrus and banana cultivation, because of its tropical climate and the availability of water for irrigation. There is also some small-scale production of forage crops, mainly alfalfa.
Crop production can be grouped into four main types—field crops, grown on 39% of the total cultivated area, vegetables on 15%, olive trees on 32% and other tree crops on 14%. Field crops include wheat, barley, lentil and chickpea grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions. Wheat and barley are grown in southern Jordan and in the Jordan Valley, but the total area of crops grown under irrigation is small compared with that in rainfed areas. Vegetables are mainly grown in plastic houses in the Jordan Valley; they include tomato, cucumber, squash, potatoes, cabbage, eggplant, onion, mallow and watermelon. Other tree crops are grape, citrus, apple and stone fruits.
The total surface water, groundwater and wastewater resources are about 950 million cubic metres, insufficient to meet demand. Available surface water is estimated at 692 million cubic metres per year, of which only 475 million cubic metres can be developed economically. The main sources are flood water (334 million cubic metres), river baseflow and spring water (358 million cubic metres) and waste water. The safe yield of renewable groundwater is about 277 million cubic metres per year, and fresh fossil aquifers yield about 143 million cubic metres per year. Over 50% of the total water used is pumped from both renewable and non-renewable resources (Ghazawi 1992). Most of the 52 million cubic metres of treated waste water is used for irrigated agriculture. Irrigation uses 73% of all water, while 22% is used for public supply in towns, 4% for industry and 1% for livestock.
Average annual rainfall is about 8.5 billion cubic metres, ranging from a minimum of 6 billion cubic metres in dry areas to over 12 billion cubic metres in wet years. More than 85% of rainfall is lost by evaporation and only 5% recharges underground aquifers. Only 8.6% of Jordan receives average precipitation in excess of 200 mm/yr, sufficient for some rainfed agriculture. Rainfall is a crucial factor in determining the area that can be cultivated and the type of crops to be grown. Low rainfall reduces yield in rainfed agriculture, the supply of irrigation water, and the area under cultivation, by making it necessary to increase the area of fallow (Ghazawi 1992).
The current livestock population is about 2.375 million sheep, 807,000 goats and 47,358 cattle (MA 1996). The main sheep breed is the fat-tailed Awassi; 92% of the goats are of the indigenous black Baladi breed and 8% are Shami and crossbreds.
The total production of red meat in 1996 was estimated to be 21,350 t, meeting 43% of the country’s consumption, to which sheep contributed 66%, cattle 23%, goats 9% and camels 1% (MA 1996). The estimated total production of milk in 1996 was 165,100 t, with approximately 65% coming from cows, 23% from ewes and 12% from goats (MA 1997). Thirty per cent of sheep and goat’s milk was processed to produce ghee and dried buttermilk, or jameed, 10% was consumed as fresh milk and 60% was made into white cheese. Jordan is about 50% self-sufficient in milk.
Pastoralism is the main system prevailing in the semi-desert and arid zones, which are characterised by erratic and localised rainfall. In high rainfall years, flocks of sheep and goats are moved within the semi-desert zone, outside tribal boundaries, wherever forage is available. After exploiting most of the rangeland vegetation, the flocks are moved to flat wadi beds, or marabs, to graze barley stubble after harvest. The estimated area of these marabs is 200,000 ha. Grazing fees range from JD 20 to 30 per hectare. Productivity is high because of flood water, which comes from watersheds inside and outside Jordan’s borders. When the rains are poor, flocks are moved to cultivated areas in the arid zone to graze barley, for which the flock owners pay between JD 20 and 30 per hectare. These cultivated range areas are state owned and remote, which encourages the tribes to put them into continuous barley cultivation to secure a source of forage for livestock and to claim ownership of the land in the future. Continuous cultivation of the rangelands has resulted in the destruction of native vegetation and the gradual shift from a nomadic system to a pastoral system with cropping. In both high and low rainfall seasons, a substantial number of sheep and goat flocks are moved to the semi-arid and humid zones to graze stubble. Feed sources in the pastoral production system include native vegetation, green barley, stubble, barley grain and wheat bran. Animal products are usually sold at a low price to travelling merchants.
Between 10% and 20% of sheep flocks are kept in an agropastoral system, found mainly in high rainfall areas in the semi-arid and semi-humid zones. Cereals and legumes are produced for human and animal consumption, and animals, mostly sheep, remain near the village or cultivated areas most of the year. Barley grain, vetch, stubble, wheat bran, crop residues and agro-industrial by-products such as olive cake and tomato pulp are used, while the rangelands contribute up to 20% of the feed resources. Veterinary services and markets in small towns and villages are accessible. Animal products, fresh milk, white cheese and dried buttermilk are a major source of income for flock owners.
The major constraints are:
- shortage of feed resources
- indigenous resources need to be protected and developed
- poor utilisation of feeds—there is an urgent need to improve rations for ruminants (GTZ 1993), to
- eliminate the use of expensive but unbalanced feeds
- increase farmer income
- increase animal production nationally
- reduce the time needed to rear and fatten young animals; reduce high costs and unnecessary waste of resources
- reduce the large number of animal diseases and the very low fertility rates
Increasing the production and utilisation of local feed resources is essential. Feed resources are mainly derived from rangelands, field crops and agro-industrial by-products, and research is needed on the following issues:
Little has been done in Jordan to develop a technical package for the nutrition of sheep, goats and cows at different stages of their productive cycle. The following issues need to be studied:
The present land tenure system is the result of a long conflict between pastoral groups and the administration, and it is the main reason for the destruction of natural vegetation in the steppe and desert rangelands. Failure to enforce existing laws has encouraged the cultivation of the most productive rangelands, resulting in desertification. It is a complex issue, and one that needs careful study to avoid social and political crises. The following aspects could be considered:
The major research requirements, besides generous finance, are:
Jordan University has two research stations, one at Muwaqqar, 40 km south-east of Amman, with an area of 200 ha. Nine research assistants with BSc or MSc degrees are responsible for projects on water harvesting, on the establishment and production of forage crops, and for evaluating seedbanks. A livestock unit will be established soon for grazing trials.
The other research station is in the Jordan Valley, 45 km west of Amman, with an area of 100 ha. It is divided into three sections—for fruit trees, vegetables and livestock (goats, sheep, dairy cattle and poultry). The animal research is mainly on formulating rations for dairy cattle and small ruminants at different stages of production, using agricultural and industrial by-products, such as tomato pulp, banana leaves, olive cake and poultry litter.
The university also has two laboratories for feed analysis, using proximate analysis, Van Soest, and in vitro digestibility. The laboratories are used for teaching, training and research.
The National Council for Agricultural Research and Technology Transfer has three research stations for livestock and range activities, seven stations for forage and crop production, and a small laboratory for feed analysis.
The Forestry and Rangeland Department of the Ministry of Agriculture has a seed centre, 15 km west of Amman, for collecting, evaluating and distributing seeds of shrubs and trees; it also has 23 range reserves.
Jordanian institutions are involved in collaborative work with the International Centre for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Arab Centre for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD).
Abu-Zanat M. 1995. Production systems of small ruminants within the different agroecological zones of Jordan. Paper presented at Livestock Research Priorities Workshop, 9–10 November, Amman, Jordan.
Ghazawi A. 1992. Land and Water Policies in the Near East Region: Case Studies on Egypt, Jordan and Pakistan. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Juneidi M. and Abu-Zanat M. 1993. Low rainfall zone sub-sector review. Agricultural Sector Review and Policy Implementation Plan. United States Agency for International Development, Amman, Jordan.
Khalidi N. 1993. Jordan agricultural sector review: synthesis. Agricultural Sector Review and Policy Implementation Plan. United States Agency for International Development,. Amman, Jordan.
MA (Ministry of Agriculture, Jordan). 1996. Annual report. Department of Livestock, Ministry of Agriculture, Amman, Jordan.
MA (Ministry of Agriculture, Jordan). 1997. Regional report for agricultural development in Jordan. Department of Economics and Agricultural Policy, Ministry of Agriculture, Amman, Jordan.
