B. Fadlalla1 and F.A Ahmed2
1. Agricultural Research Council, Wad Medani, Sudan
2. Animal Resources Research Corporation, P.O. Box 8067 (Al Amarat),
Khartoum, Sudan
Sudan is the largest country in Africa, with an area of 2.44 million square kilometres, extending from 4°N to 22°N. It has a population of 25 million, mostly living in rural areas. Climatic conditions are diverse, with average rainfall varying from less than 25 mm in the north to 1500 mm in the south. The main rainy season is between July and September. Mean daily temperatures vary from a maximum of more than 40°C in the north to a minimum of 6°C in Jebal Marra in the west. There are extensive plains of ironstone in the south, clay soils in the central plains, and sand in the north and west, with a few mountainous areas in the south, east and west. The River Nile runs through the country from south to north, a distance of 2258 km. In 1996, agriculture, which provides employment for about 75% of the population, contributed 48% of GDP and 73% of export earnings. Most important industries depend on agricultural products as raw materials.
Sudan can be divided into six agro-ecological zones, whose major plant communities have been described by Harrison and Jackson (1958) and by Wickens (1991).
The desert, with rainfall of less than 75 mm, covers 27% of the country. Vegetation, which is virtually absent except on water courses, consists essentially of ephemeral grasses and herbs known as ‘gizu’, following rare rain showers in winter. These succulent plants provide grazing, mainly for camels, during the dry period from November to February.
The semi-desert, covering 18% of the country, extends along a wide belt from the border with Chad to the Red Sea coast. Rainfall is between 75 and 300 mm, and vegetation is mainly scrub and grassland. Dominant trees and shrubs include Acacia tortilis, Capparis decidua, Leptadenia pyrotechnica, Maerua crassifolia and Salvadora persica with Acacia mellifera, Balanites aegyptiaca, Capparis decidua and Ziziphus spina-christi on clay soils and water courses. Herbaceous species include Aristida spp., Blepharis spp., Cenchrus spp., Cymbopogon nervatus, Panicum turgidum and Schoenefeldia gracilis. Because of successive droughts and overgrazing, some desirable species such as Blepharis linarifolia and Cadaba farinosa have disappeared in many areas of the range
The low rainfall savannah, with rainfall between 300 and 500 mm, covers 24% of the country, with 340,000 ha on clay and 240,000 ha on sandy soils. It is characterised by open woodland in some areas and by open grassland in others. The dominant trees are Acacia spp. such as A. mellifera, A. nubica, A. seyal, A. senegal and A. tortilis. Other species include Anogeissus leiocarpa, Boscia senegalensis, Cadaba glandulosa, Capparis decidua, Commiphora africana, Dalbergia melanoxylon, Faidherbia albida, Grewia tenax, Indigofera oblongifolia, Tamarix articulata, Terminalia spp. and Ziziphus spp. Herbaceous species include Aristida spp., Blepharis spp., Cyperus rotundus, Shoenefeldia spp. and Zornia spp.
The high rainfall savannah, which covers 11% of the country, has rainfall from 500 to over 1000 mm. Acacia species such as Acacia polyacantha and A. seyal are dominant, but broadleaved trees are also found, including Anogeissus spp., Combretum spp., Dichrostachys cinerea, Lonchocarpus laxiflorus, Sclerocarya birrea, Sterculia setigera and Terminalia spp. Herbaceous plants include tall grasses such as Brachiaria spp. Cymbopogon spp. and Hyparrhenia rufa, and the shorter Aristida spp., Blepharis spp., Cenchrus biflorus, Ipomoea spp., Setaria spp. and Zornia spp. on sandy soils.
The mountain zone covers 6% of the country and includes Jebel Marra, the Nuba and Imatong Mountains, and the Red Sea Hills. The vegetation in these areas is quite diverse.
Vegetation in the flood region, 14% of the country, is dominated by Cyperus papyrus, with associated Echinochloa pyramidalis, Phragmites australis and Typha latifolia.
Sudan has the second largest animal population in Africa. In 1997, the contribution of livestock to GDP was estimated at 20%, representing 42% of the contribution of the agricultural sector (Ministry of Finance and National Economy 1997). Earnings from the export of live animals and meat in 1996 were US$ 135.7 million.
In 1994–95, there were 103 million livestock, of which 30 million were cattle, 37 million sheep, 33 million goats and about 3 million camels. Western Sudan has the most livestock (40%), followed by southern Sudan (27%) and central Sudan (23%). The majority of breeds are raised within tribal groups and often carry the name of the tribe. They are well adapted to the harsh environment and often trek long distances in search of feed and water. Productivity is low but can be improved with good management in more favourable conditions. Cattle are mainly descended from Bos taurus, or zebu. In central Sudan they are generally kept for milk, and in western Sudan for meat production. Sheep are of the Sudan Desert type, with live weights up to 70 kg and excellent meat and carcass characteristics. Goats, mostly of the large, black Nubian type, are found in central Sudan and are kept for milk. There are two types of the single-humped camel, one kept for riding and the other as a pack or baggage animal. Camels are exported mainly for meat.
About 90% of livestock are raised in traditional pastoral systems, mainly in the western states of Kordofan and Darfur, and in the southern states. Rangelands occupy an area of 110 million hectares. Sudan also produces about 18.6 million tonnes of crop residues (AOAD 1994). Green fodder cultivation, however, is less than 126,000 ha. Rangelands provide about 86% of feed for livestock, crop residues and agricultural byproducts 10%, and irrigated forage and concentrates 4%. The rangelands suffer from overstocking in some areas and understocking in others, from bush fires, deforestation, uneven distribution of water sources, and the encroachment of both traditional and mechanised agriculture.
The major production systems are described here:
Livestock, mainly camels and sheep, with some goats, are raised entirely on natural rangelands. Households move with their animals and have no permanent base on which to grow crops. They spend the rainy season in the northern, semi-desert zone and during the dry season, move further south into the savannah. Income is derived from the sale of animals, meat and milk in the form of white cheese.
In the transhumant agropastoral system, households depend mainly on livestock, mostly cattle, with some sheep and goats, although there is some cropping. In western Sudan, households migrate north during the rainy season and return to the savannah during the dry season. In the central and eastern states, migration is towards the Nile during the rainy season and back during the dry season.
The sedentary system exists where there is rainfed, arable farming in settled villages. Some livestock, mainly small ruminants, are kept, but the animals are less important than the crops. Sorghum, sesame and cotton are grown on clay soils, and millet and groundnuts on sandy soils.
A migratory agropastoral system is found in southern Sudan, where livestock are raised in traditional rainfed agricultural systems in settled villages. Livestock are moved away from the Nile in the period of flooding and back when the floods recede.
Permanently settled farmers in the irrigated areas of central Sudan grow cotton, sorghum, groundnuts and wheat, and also raise livestock, especially small ruminants. Livestock, although less important than crops, are a supplementary source of income, which is used to hire labour for agricultural work before the harvest. Productivity is low and animals depend heavily on crop residues, industrial by-products and the grazing of limited areas of fallow and the sides of canals. Intensive cow’s milk production is becoming more common within the large irrigation schemes, and these areas are seen as promising for future expansion of livestock production.
Other animal production systems include ranching, feedlot operations and peri-urban backyard livestock production. Ranching is a recent trend in Sudan. Animals are raised for meat on natural rangelands in western Sudan in Kordofan and Darfur, and in Butana in Kassala State. Poor range management within the ranch is, however, a major constraint. Feedlots have existed for over 30 years. Animals, mainly beef cattle, are brought on the hoof from western Sudan and fattened in Khartoum State on sorghum grain, oilseed cakes and roughage, with gains of up to 1 kg/day in cattle and 0.35 kg in sheep. Near and within urban areas, goats and poultry fed on household waste are kept for domestic supply.
In spite of the great potential of livestock and Sudan’s self-sufficiency in meat and other livestock products, the following constraints on production are important:
The Ten-Year National Comprehensive Strategy plan for 1992–2001 aims to ensure food security by increasing livestock production. The key elements for livestock development are:
Research can be divided into the following major categories:
About 90% of animal production is in rangeland. Research on communal grazing lands has its limitations, but this should not prevent scientists from addressing some of the following:
Studies are needed on
In 1996, the Ministry of Animal Resources was given a mandate to oversee the development of the livestock industry, the improvement of range and pasture, the control of disease and the strengthening of research. Sudan is self-sufficient in vaccines. Animal production research is carried out by a number of institutions, including the Animal Production Research Corporation, which has four centres—for veterinary, animal production, fisheries and wildlife—and is also responsible for regional veterinary diagnosis and research laboratories, livestock research stations, the Agricultural Research Corporation and the National Centre for Research. There is also some research in the universities, in the faculties of veterinary science, animal production and natural resources. There are about 140 scientists, specialising in various aspects of animal production. Research is, however, limited by the lack of international contacts and access to international publications, by inadequate finance for laboratory equipment and costs, and by the lack of external training.
AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development).1994. A study on the utilization of agricultural by-products in the formulation of animal feeds in Arab countries (in Arabic)
Fadlalla B. 1987. The dry season nutritional status of transhumant Baggara sheep in Sudan. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Animal Production in Arid Zones, Damascus, Syria, 7–12 September 1985, part 2, pp. 834–844. ACSAD (Arab Centre for Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands) and AOAD (Arab Organization for Agricultural Development
Harrison M.N. and Jackson J.K. 1958. Ecological classification of the vegetation of the Sudan. Forests Bulletin No.2 (New Series). Forests Department, Khartoum.
Ministry of Finance and National Economy, Sudan. 1997. Report by the Committee on Macro-economy (in Arabic)
Wickens G.E. 1991. Natural vegetation. In: Craig G.M. (ed), The Agriculture of the Sudan. Oxford University Press, London. pp. 54–67.
