| Number |
Head |
Code |
| 1 |
|
Case study number(s) |
| 2 |
|
Source(s) |
|
DESCRIPTORS |
| 3 |
|
Country, locality |
| 4 |
|
Rainfall, environmental unit, and strata |
| 5 |
|
Ethnic group(s) |
| 6 |
|
Critical ecological indicators |
| 7 |
|
Human population, density, growth |
| 8 |
|
Livestock population, density, growth |
|
RESOURCE ACCESS |
| 9 |
|
Livestock/holding - types, numbers |
| 10 |
|
Livestock ownership determinants |
| 11 |
|
Access rights - grazing |
| 12 |
|
Access rights - farmland |
|
ECONOMIC INTEGRATION |
| 13 |
|
Contribution to subsistence |
| 14 |
|
Contribution to income |
| 15 |
|
Investment value |
| 16 |
|
Exchange contracts |
|
SYSTEM INTEGRATION (see below) |
| 17 |
|
Residues 0-3 |
| 18 |
|
Fodder trees 0-3 |
| 19 |
|
Fodder production 0-3 |
| 20 |
|
Manure 0-3 |
| 21 |
|
Traction 0-3 |
| 22 |
|
Transport 0-3 |
| 23 |
|
Cattle movements 0-3 |
| 24 |
|
SR movements 0-3 |
|
RECENT TRENDS, ECONOMIC |
| 25 |
|
Settlements |
| 26 |
|
Land supply - |
| 27 |
|
Specialisation, diversification |
| 28 |
|
Market impact, terms of trade |
|
RECENT TRENDS, ENVIRONMENTAL |
| 29 |
|
Intensity rating 0-3 (see below) |
| 30 |
|
New systems of resource use |
| 31 |
|
Degradation, sustainability |
| 32 |
|
Effects of drought |
| 17 |
1 |
Residues |
0 |
not used for fodder |
|
|
|
1 |
open access grazing of stover + stubble |
|
|
|
2 |
privatised stover (storage) + 0A stubble |
|
|
|
3 |
enclosure: privatised stover + stubble |
| 18 |
2 |
Fodder Trees |
0 |
none on farmland |
|
|
|
1 |
volunteers protected, 0A browsing |
|
|
|
2 |
plantings + protection, 0A browsing |
|
|
|
3 |
privatised, browsed, cut and carried |
| 19 |
3 |
Fodder production |
0 |
none |
|
|
|
1 |
cut and carried from natural vegetation |
|
|
|
2 |
cut and carried, bought and sold |
|
|
|
3 |
grown on farm, cut & carried, bought &
sold |
| 20 |
4 |
Manure |
0 |
not used for fertilisation |
|
|
|
1 |
'farm' system (field grazing, night paddocking) |
|
|
|
2 |
dry pen system + carrying + farm system |
|
|
|
3 |
composting + carrying + farm system |
| 21 |
5 |
Traction |
0 |
no animal draft power used |
|
|
|
1 |
draft animals owned or rented by minority |
|
|
|
2 |
draft animals owned or rented by majority |
|
|
|
3 |
draft animals owned by majority |
| 22 |
6 |
Transport |
0 |
no transport available |
|
|
|
1 |
owned or rented by minority |
|
|
|
2 |
owned or rented by majority |
|
|
|
3 |
owned by majority |
| 23 |
7 |
Cattle movements |
0 |
off farm for whole year |
|
|
|
1 |
outside community area all year, but off farm for
part of year |
|
|
|
2 |
in community areas all year, but off farm for
part of year |
|
|
|
3 |
on farm all year |
| 24 |
8 |
SR movements |
0 |
off farm all year |
|
|
|
1 |
outside community area for part of year |
|
|
|
2 |
in community area all year, but off farm for part
of year |
|
|
|
3 |
on farm all year |
| Grazing |
0 |
no farming except by livestock specialists
migrant herds |
| Enclave farming |
1 |
low cultivated percentage |
|
|
low degree of integration |
|
|
common access grazing extensive |
|
|
many livestock specialists |
|
|
migrant herds visiting |
|
|
little nutrient cycling |
|
|
some nutrient transfer |
|
|
long fallows (main fertility strategy) no trees
on arable |
| Enclave grazing |
2 |
high cultivated percentage >20 |
|
|
high degree of integration |
|
|
common access grazing restricted |
|
|
some livestock specialists |
|
|
transhumance for cattle |
|
|
nutrient cycling (residues - manure) |
|
|
nutrient transfer (paddocking) |
|
|
short fallows - insufficient to maintain arable
fertility |
|
|
some trees on arable |
| Intensive farming |
3 |
very high cultivated percentage >70 |
|
|
highest degree of integration |
|
|
common access grazing limited to residual |
|
|
marginal or flooded land |
|
|
livestock owned by farmers |
|
|
transhumance or stall feeding for cattle |
|
|
intensive nutrient cycling (residues manure) |
|
|
very short fallows, or none |
|
|
trees important on arable |
| 1 |
1 |
| 2 |
Toulmin (ms.nd); Toulmin 1983 |
| 3 |
Mali: Segou region, N of Niger (Kale Village) |
| 4 |
4-500mm (SAZ U,D) EU |
| 5 |
Bambara, Fulani, Maures |
| 6 |
Flat, old dunes, depth to iron pan variable |
| 7 |
7/km2 |
| 8 |
20-30% reduction in rainfall after 1970 |
| 9 |
Livestock/hh:21 cattle, 24 SR, 1.6 donkeys, 0.6
horses |
| 10 |
Bambara-farmers with cattle (male owned) and SR
(male or female owned) Fulani - herders with farms Maure/Fulani herder specialists
(seasonal visitors) |
| 11 |
Open access to grazing land |
| 12 |
Bambara try to stop Fulani settling and digging
wells |
| 13 |
Milk |
| 14 |
Milk sales generate income for marriage and other
expenses |
| 15 |
Groundnut profits invested in cattle,
1950s-1960s, which are sold for cash or contingencies. Their value as marketable assets is
stressed. |
| 16 |
Bambara entrust livestock to Fulani (wet) Bambara
pay grain, cash, food or allow access to private wells in exchange for field coralling.
Bambara pay hired herders millet and milk; do not herd their own cattle. Fulani hire
labour for weeding. |
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
2 or 3 |
| 22 |
2 or 3 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
In-migration and settlement dispersal. |
| 26 |
Increasing arable, decreasing grazing; Bambara
attempt to limit strangers' access to arable. |
| 27 |
'Homogenisation' of Fulani and Bambara
traditional specializations, and economic strategies. Diversification of income sources;
fattening of sheep/goats by 'retired' elderly; migratory labour especially in smaller
households. |
| 28 |
Strong market for livestock sales. |
| 29 |
1 - system depends on abundant supply of arable
and long fallows (30 years or more) of bush fields. |
| 30 |
(1) increase in private wells - ownership of a
well generates enough manure, from the equivalent of 15 cattle year-round (owned or
visiting) to fertilize 3ha (2) Decline of groundnut and of individual forms of production
(3) Use of plough for both weeding and ridging (4) Increase in manured area. (5) Increase
in livestock numbers. |
| 31 |
Decline of perennial grasses; tree mortality. |
| 32 |
Increasing preference for short-cycle millet.
Movement of herders into farming. |
| 1 |
2 |
| 2 |
Mortimore, 1990, Hendy, 1977 |
| 3 |
Nigeria: Kano Close-Settled Zone |
| 4 |
813 mm: (SAZ, UM) |
| 5 |
Hausa (80%); Fulani (20%) |
| 6 |
Aeolian sands cover 90% surface, 90-91% sand.
Sandy-loams in fadama depressions. Almost all natural vegetation eliminated. 26% reduction
in August rainfall, 1931-60/1966-85 |
| 7 |
4-500/km2 at 2-3%(?) |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle 0.6/farm unit, sheep 5.3, goats 8.1,
donkeys 0.8, fowls 18 |
| 10 |
Cattle owned by sedentary Fulani, SR by all
households. Percent of farm units owning cattle, 9; sheep, 72; goats 93; donkeys 61; hens
89. |
| 11 |
Open access to residual bush |
| 12 |
Inheritance, purchase, borrowing, renting.
Alienation to outsiders is not favoured |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (special occasions) |
| 14 |
Milk sales; manure may be sold; SR breeding for
sale |
| 15 |
Investment value of all livestock stressed; SR
more easily acquired or sold to meet cash needs |
| 16 |
Cattle owners entrust to neighbours for wet
season transhumance. Coralling contracts now rare. |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
3 |
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
1 |
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
Little migration. Dispersed households
reorganised into compact villages. |
| 26 |
Extreme scarcity; use of marginal sites. |
| 27 |
Diversification highly developed into off farm
occupations and labour/trading circulation (dry season) and urban wage employment. |
| 28 |
Highly developed cash economy through formal and
informal market structures. |
| 29 |
3 |
| 30 |
(1) Decline of groundnuts since 1975; (2) partial
substitution of cowpeas (including improved); (3) increased use of inorganic fertilizers;
(4) increased grain sales; (5) increased use of plough |
| 31 |
Stable soil chemical and physical properties
1977-90 (average); stable and regenerating numbers/densities of farm trees |
| 32 |
Preference for short season millet over sorghum
in some areas; household economic diversification. |
| 1 |
3 |
| 2 |
Mortimore, 1989 |
| 3 |
Nigeria, NE Kano, NW Borno |
| 4 |
430 mm (SAZ UD) |
| 5 |
Manga (80%), Hausa (15%) Fulani (5%) |
| 6 |
Aeolian dune sands and depressions. 25% reduction
in rainfall, 1942-60/1970-85: |
| 7 |
100-150/km2 at 2-3%(?) |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Fulani herds: cattle 7, SR 10 (1972); 6 and 7
(1974). Hausa herds: cattle 3, SR 7 (1972); 1 and 3 (1974) |
| 10 |
Livestock specialists (Fulani) own more, esp.
cattle. Cattle ownership associated with wealth. Women own SR. |
| 11 |
Common access to administratively reserved
grazing areas, but customary use by resident Fulani. Fodder may be privatised and sold. |
| 12 |
Manga - inheritance mainly; also reallocation of
unused plots. Hausa (in-migrants) - allocation by Manga head. Fulani enclosure of grazing
land. |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (special occasions) |
| 14 |
Milk-grain exchanges; milk sales; sale of bred
stock; hire of transport animals. |
| 15 |
Animals highly valued as investments; sale for
cash needs, contingencies. SR readily sold when necessary. |
| 16 |
Entrustment rare because Manga cattle ownership
much reduced; night coralling in exchange for grain or money uncommon; hired herders
uncommon. |
| 17 |
1 |
| 18 |
1 |
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 (infield) |
| 21 |
1 |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
In-migrants start new villages or attachments to
existing ones. |
| 26 |
Cultivated percentage increased from 28% in 1950
to 39% in 1981. |
| 27 |
Intensified involvement of Manga in labour
circulation and trading animals (Lagos); increasing diversity of alternative income
opportunities. |
| 28 |
Fluctuating crop: livestock ToT influenced by
rainfall and other external factors; decline of groundnut sales since 1975 and attempts to
find marketable substitutes. |
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Ploughs or labour saving hoe (ashasha) used to
extend cultivated area per h/hold. |
| 31 |
Shortage of fallow land. Yield trends cannot be
controlled for rainfall effects. Heavy stocking on grazing areas. |
| 32 |
Increased nomadic herds from farther north;
intensified labour circulation and off-farm income seeking; experimentation with shor
season crops. |
| 1 |
4 |
| 2 |
Gulbrandsen, 1980; Lawry 1983; Abel et al, 1987;
Flint, 1986. |
| 3 |
Botswana, Ngwaketse District, Kanye area
(Gulbrandsen) and Pelotshetla lands area (Abel et al.) |
| 4 |
516 mm (SAZ, ST, D) |
| 5 |
Tswana |
| 6 |
Clays, clay loams (seloko). Sandy soils
(mothlaba) |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle and donkeys. 10-12 cattle are needed to
support a draft team of 6; 21-30 to support 6 oxen. 70% farms hold cattle; 55% own cattle;
5TLU/head, highest in Africa (Botswana data) |
| 10 |
Age: in h/holds headed by men >50 yrs, 87%
have >11 cattle; in those <50 years, 74% have <10. Most female headed households
have <10. Wealth: ave. income of owners of >45 cattle is 3x that of owners of
<16. |
| 11 |
Communal, except where privatised under the
provisions of the TGLP. |
| 12 |
Communal, that is grazing land can be freely
converted. |
| 13 |
Milk (but primary purpose of keeping cattle is
for draft). |
| 14 |
Via draft: milk, meat and in-kind products
represent >50% value of small herds esp. SR. Cash sales 45% income of large herds, esp.
cattle. |
| 15 |
Cattle are valued as investments because of
breeding capability, but sales avoided to protect the ploughteam, unless surplus. |
| 16 |
Herd boys take herds to cattle posts during the
farming season. Later h/h management agreements. |
| 17 |
2(?) |
| 18 |
0(?) |
| 19 |
1 |
| 20 |
1 |
| 21 |
3 |
| 22 |
3 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2(?) |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Grazing area declining as arable expands (3%
doubling yearly), communal grazing reduced by private grazing enclosures; new grazing
areas opened up by private boreholes. |
| 27 |
Labour circulation (S African mines) funds
livestock investments; very few h/h depend exclusively on agro-pastoralism - 75% have at
least 1 wage employee. |
| 28 |
Economic returns of farming low; food supply is
dominant objective; Cattle offtake is 8% (traditional sector). |
| 29 |
1 or 2 |
| 30 |
Privatised boreholes and grazing enclosures. |
| 31 |
'Overgrazing' (change of species and reduced
plant density) is localised (boreholes) and not generally admitted by farmers. But
stocking rate in Botswana CAs is 4.2 ha/LSU (recommended rate 12 |
| 32 |
Intensifies dependence on non-agricultural
incomes. |
| 1 |
5 |
| 2 |
Gregoire, 1980; Gregoire & Raynaut, 1980;
Boulier and Jouve, 1988: Raynaut, 1977: |
| 3 |
Niger, Maradi area. |
| 4 |
<400 mm (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Hausa (80%); Fulani (20%) |
| 6 |
Ferruginous tropical sands on old dunes (jigawa),
93% sand. Ferruginous tropical compact soils (geza), 89% sand. Hydromorphic (fadama), 78%
sand. Reduced rainfall in last 20 years. |
| 7 |
1642 at 28/km2 (1977) |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
per unit 8.0 goats, 2.5 sheep, 0.4 cattle, 0.25
horses/donkeys, 0.2 camels; l goat/person. |
| 10 |
Size of holding - cattle restricted to >3 ha.
Women own 70% goats 51% sheep 35% cattle. LUs: Fulani own 64% cattle, Hausa 54% sheep, 22%
goats. |
| 11 |
Common or open access to grazing, fallows,
fields. |
| 12 |
Inheritance, allocation, purchase, loan, hiring
(recent) |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (special occasions) |
| 14 |
17% unit heads, monetary income from
pastoralism/animal products, much higher for specialists; 42% women's' income. |
| 15 |
Capitalisation in small livestock a vital form of
saving and revenue generation. |
| 16 |
Manuring contracts have nearly disappeared.
Entrustment also regressing (Fulanis taking up farming). |
| 17 |
Transitional, 1-2 |
| 18 |
1 or 2 |
| 19 |
2(?) |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
1 (33%) |
| 22 |
2(?) |
| 23 |
1 or 2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
(1) Cultivated area grows at 4%/yr (1957-75) |
|
(2) Cultivated area grows on north and south at
2.4 and 2.5%/yr (1960-68) increasing to 6.9 and 3.1% (1968-70) and falling to 3.4 and 3.1
(1979-85) |
| 27 |
Migration is generally temporary. Local
alternative income sources are more important. |
| 28 |
1970 1 cow = 15 bags millet |
|
1976 1 cow = 25 bags millet |
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Extensification of farming system, 1968-79 (see
26) |
| 31 |
Loss of equilibrium between cultivation and
grazing (nutrient transfer). Shortening fallows. |
| 32 |
Loss of livestock contributing to shortage of
manure. |
| 1 |
6 |
| 2 |
Holtzman, 1987; Hallaire, 1971 |
| 3 |
Cameroun, Mokolo area - Mandara Mts. |
| 4 |
6-1100 mm (SAZ, U,M) |
| 5 |
Mafa (Mandara) |
| 6 |
Decomposed granite severely eroded, coarse gravel
soils, steep slopes; Terrace management of steep slopes |
| 7 |
547,748 in Region at >200/km2
(1976) |
| 8 |
(Cattle) 68/km2 in region |
| 9 |
Ave. 1.1 bulls/household, stall feeding system
over 26 months (ave) |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
One third (39%, 1977-81) of bulls slaughtered are
used for festivals/subsistence (extended family) |
| 14 |
Two thirds (61% 1977-81) of fattened bulls are
sold wholly or partly, paying taxes, financing purchases |
| 15 |
Beef sales revenue invested in more animals. |
| 16 |
Fulani herders may be paid in grain, legumes or
food for grazing residues. Herding by children (dry season) |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
0 or 1 |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
2 (stall fed 7 months) |
| 24 |
|
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Scarce |
| 27 |
Beer brewing, firewood collection, grass
collection/storage, labouring locally or in towns |
| 28 |
Increasing monetization even in remote villages.
Cattle prices increased at 9%/yr, 1972-80. |
| 29 |
3 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
|
| 32 |
Withdrawal of cattle from the market for herd
reconstitution. |
| 1 |
7 |
| 2 |
Blench, 1987 |
| 3 |
Sudan, Gezira |
| 4 |
(AZ) |
| 5 |
Arab, Fulani (Fellata) |
| 6 |
Black cotton soils, Irrigation scheme |
| 8 |
Feb 1986 and April 1986/km2 |
|
|
17 |
23 |
cattle |
|
|
62 |
80 |
small ruminants |
|
|
19 |
19 |
donkeys |
| 9 |
4,2 cattle, 12.7 SR and 1.3 donkeys/household
with important differences between Gezira and Managil, tenants and non-tenants |
| 10 |
Tenants have larger holdings of livestock; but
40% owned by sharecroppers/labourers especially SR. |
| 11 |
Open access off-scheme, restricted on-scheme |
| 12 |
Scheme holdings (irrigated) operated by tenants;
share croppers. |
| 13 |
Milk, meat, domestic transport |
| 14 |
Sale of milk, cheese, meat, transport animals
(donkeys) and fattened sheep. |
| 15 |
|
| 16 |
Hired herders Herding contracts (with nomads?)
especially for smaller livestock owners |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
3 (lubia) dropped in 1970s; now 2 (?) |
| 20 |
2(?) |
| 21 |
1 or 2 |
| 22 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
0 or 1 (off scheme for most of the year) |
| 24 |
1 or 2 (?) |
| 25 |
Ethnic diversity and recent influx of labourers
and share croppers from W. Sudan. |
| 26 |
Restricted by irrigation availability. |
| 27 |
Cheese making, dairy, sheep fattening, donkey
breeding specialisations. |
| 28 |
ToT continue to favour livestock owners rather
than cotton producers. Dairy marketing efficient; demand exceeds supply. |
| 29 |
3 (irrigated) |
| 30 |
Increasing use of off-scheme or distant grazings
by scheme livestock owners. |
| 31 |
Deforestation due to charcoal making in areas S
of scheme has reduced tsetse risk. |
| 32 |
Transfer of cattle from nomads to wealthy scheme
residents 40%-60% losses in 1980s. |
| 1 |
8 |
| 2 |
Morton 1988 |
| 3 |
Sudan, Kassala Province, N & S of Gedaref |
| 4 |
2-600 mm (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Lahawin |
| 6 |
Cracking days: alluvial (jerif) along rivers
Atbara, Setit Rivers in incised valleys |
| 7 |
8-9000 Lahawin W bank of Atbara |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Camels cattle SR |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Collective rights to dry season grazings near
rivers; open access to wet season grazings between rivers |
| 12 |
Some Lahawin are tenants on New Halfa irrigation
scheme |
|
Family customary rights to arable; some
registered holdings |
| 13 |
Milk is reserved for herds and domestic
consumption. skins, etc. |
| 14 |
Regular sales to finance food purchases, e.g.
25-30 sheep, 3-4 camels/yr/family |
| 15 |
Many large herds; wealthy remain in pastoralism;
camels most highly valued for investment |
| 16 |
Deals between units of extended family to share
herding (esp. wet season transhumance) and farming responsibilities. Merchants and scheme
farmers hire herders. |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 or 1(?) |
| 20 |
1 (?) |
| 21 |
1 or 2 (?) |
| 22 |
3 |
| 23 |
1 (transhumance) |
| 24 |
1 or 2(?) |
| 25 |
Settlement (1950s) to claim dry season lands |
|
Settlement (1980s) owing to loss of stock |
| 26 |
Wet season grazing areas are liable to
expropriation (mechanised farming). Scarcity of dry season lands, appropriation by
farmers. |
| 27 |
Wage labour on mechanised farms |
| 28 |
Residues marketed |
|
Monetization associated with scheme |
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
Expanding mechanised farms Irrigation scheme
(mechanised). |
|
Nomad settlement |
| 31 |
Soil erosion and exhaustion on (mechanised farms,
cultivation north of the legal limit. Woodcutting. Reservoir siltation. Banditry in border
area discourages grazing. |
| 32 |
Loss of stock <100%, suspension of
transhumance, settlement. |
| 1 |
9 |
| 2 |
Boulier and Jouve, 1988: Lericollais, 1972 |
| 3 |
Senegal, Fatick area |
| 4 |
570 mm (SAZ, U,M) |
| 5 |
Serer |
| 6 |
Ferruginous tropical sand (dior) 90% sand |
|
Hydromorphic sandy loam (dek) 89% sand 35%
reduced rainfall 1930-65/1966-82 |
| 7 |
85/km2 |
| 8 |
80 UBT/km2 |
| 9 |
12 UBT/herd (sedentary farmers, breeders) |
| 10 |
66% land holdings have no cattle; number
increases with size of holding |
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
Land loans increasing - 25% cultivated area, 40%
holdings |
| 13 |
|
| 14 |
Cattle fattening second to farming (groundnuts)
as source of income |
| 15 |
Capitalization and saving in livestock |
| 16 |
No contracts (no nomads or semi-nomads) |
| 17 |
1 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 or 1(?) |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
2 |
| 22 |
1 or 2(?) |
| 23 |
2 (enclosed fallows in wet) |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Cultivated area increasing; decline in grazing |
| 27 |
50% holdings affected by migration; earnings also
from local off farm activities |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Increasing transhumance because of forage
shortage; emergence of smaller production/consumption groups |
| 1 |
Fertility decline owing to extension of
cultivated area and reduction in manure supply caused by increase in transhumance -
'extensification' |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
10 |
| 2 |
Boulier and Jouve 1988: Bradley et al 1977 |
| 3 |
Mauritania, Guidimaka (south) |
| 4 |
460 mm (SAZ, U. M/D) |
| 5 |
Soninke (55%) Maures (25%) Fulani (15%) |
| 6 |
Aeolian sands (signa) 94% sand sand-loam,
loam-sand (niarwalle) 77% sand hydromorphic (katamagne) 45% sand 29% reduced rainfall
1930-65/1966-82 |
| 7 |
10 km2 |
| 8 |
10 UBT/km2 |
| 9 |
12 UBT/herd, sedentary |
|
28 UBT/herd, semi-nomadic |
| 10 |
Soninke, Toucouleur sedentary |
|
Fulani, Maure semi nomadic, nomadic |
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
milk, meat |
| 14 |
milk-grain exchanges between farmers and
pastoralists, Livestock second source of monetary income after migration |
| 15 |
Investment value - capitalisation and saving |
| 16 |
Entrustment of cultivators' animals to
pastoralists |
|
Manure contracts less important |
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 or 1(?) |
| 20 |
1 |
| 21 |
0 |
| 22 |
1(?) |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2(?) |
| 25 |
Since 1970 'exode' includes temporary, long term
and permanent |
| 26 |
Cultivated area reduced in response to the crisis
of the system |
| 27 |
Earnings from labour migration supplement food
supply, pay for labour and other agricultural activities - principle source of monetary
income |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Overstocking causing degradation of pasture. Wind
and water erosion follows the extension of the cultivated area, and capping |
| 32 |
Loss of tree cover |
| 1 |
12 |
| 2 |
Boulier and Jouve 1988: Marchal 1983 |
| 3 |
Burkina Faso, Yatenga, Ouahigouya area |
| 4 |
570 mm (SAZ, U,M.) |
| 5 |
Mossi (70%) Kurumba (20%), Fulani (20%) |
| 6 |
Gravels and sands (zenka, binsiri) 75, 74% sand
Sandy-clay, sand loam (dagare, kissogho)? Loamy clay (baogo) 51% sand 21% reduced rainfall
1950-65/1966-82 |
| 7 |
45/km2 |
| 8 |
20 UBT/km2 |
| 9 |
4 UBT/herd sedentary |
| 17 |
ditto semi nomads |
| 10 |
Mossi own fewer cattle, more sheep, many more
goats and horses than Fulani 35% holdings have no cattle |
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
|
| 14 |
Livestock second after migration ('exode') as
source of monetary income |
| 15 |
Livestock valued for capitalization and saving;
'primordial' role in Fulani economies |
| 16 |
Entrustment contracts graded important. Manuring
contracts less important, and declining |
| 17 |
1 or 2 (increasing) |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 or 1?() |
| 20 |
1, declining |
| 21 |
1 |
| 22 |
1(?) |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2(?) |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Fallows diminishing; recent appearance of land
loans; appropriation of land/residues by farmers, retreat of pastoralists to interstices. |
| 27 |
20% of the population involved in migration, the
most important source of monetary income, followed by 'local activities' and livestock |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Decline of ploughing; 'extensification' |
| 31 |
Extensification - less manure owing to separation
of farming (sedentary) from livestock (semi nomadic) systems |
| 32 |
Sale of plough stock and tools Shorter rainy
season reduces time available for cultivation, decline in ploughing |
| 1 |
13 |
| 2 |
Boulier & Jouve, 1988 |
| 3 |
Burkina Faso, Oudalan (NE) Dori area |
| 4 |
470 (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Tuareg (50%), Fulani (25%), Songhai (15%).
Rimaibe (10%) - last two sedentary |
| 6 |
Dune sands, 90% sand |
|
Piedmont sands, 92% sand |
|
Sandy loams in depressions (bas-fonds) 63% sand
16% reduced rainfall 1930-65/1966-82 |
| 7 |
7/km2 |
| 8 |
20 UBT/km2 |
| 9 |
8 UBT/herd (sedentary) |
|
35 UBT/herd (semi-nomadic) |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Open access to residues: Common access to village
pastures |
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
Milk very important |
| 14 |
Livestock activity the most important source of
revenue; financing chronic food grain deficits |
| 15 |
Capitalisation, saving less important than
current revenue |
| 16 |
Manure contracts very important: Entrustment
contracts important |
| 17 |
1, 2 increasing |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
1 |
| 21 |
0 |
| 22 |
1? |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Pasture scarcity owing to arable expansion |
| 27 |
Cash crops, migration and local activities all
unimportant as sources of revenue |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Degraded tree and shrub cover, overstocking near
water in dry season |
| 32 |
Sales of livestock |
| 1 |
19 |
| 2 |
Roth et al 1987 |
| 3 |
Somalia, S. Shalambood Irrign. Scheme on R.
Shebelle |
| 4 |
(AZ/SAZ, B,D) |
| 5 |
Somali |
| 6 |
Irrigation |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys; 8.4
animals/household (3.2 small owners, 15.3 large owners) |
| 10 |
34% households own livestock; women may own all
but camels and donkeys |
| 11 |
Grazing at house, on canals, around scheme |
| 12 |
Irrigated farms on scheme, but few have
registered holdings; insecurity |
| 13 |
Milk, meat |
| 14 |
Hides and leather products sold |
| 15 |
|
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
0 usually (manure used for house building) |
| 21 |
|
| 22 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
l (large owners) 2 (small owners) |
| 24 |
2(?) |
| 25 |
New Settlements on scheme |
| 26 |
Irrigated land scarce and sought after (land
grabbing); off-scheme grazing essential for larger owners (>6 animals) |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
3 |
| 30 |
Irrigation and intensified use of off-scheme
grazings by farmers |
| 31 |
|
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
21 |
| 2 |
Holt, 1986 (Behnke and Kerven, 1964): Hoben et
al, 1983 |
| 3 |
Somalia, central rangelands (and Bay region) |
| 4 |
250-300 mm (SAZ/AZ, B,D) |
| 5 |
Somali |
| 6 |
Stabilised sand dunes over limestone White
plateau (inland) soils Rainfall is relatively reliable |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Goats (80/hh) sheep (32) camels (13) cattle (10)
poultry' |
| 10 |
70-80% pastoralists own farms; 90-95% farmers own
livestock. Women own sheep, goats, poultry |
| 11 |
Common access to rangeland for all Somalis unless
enclosed |
| 12 |
Customary rights by enclosure; now State 50 yr
leases for up to 60 ha; subject to cultivation or development within 2 years. Sales,
leases, barter |
| 13 |
Milk, meat |
| 14 |
Increasing sales of livestock; crop sales may
finance animal purchases; milk sales to buy grain |
| 15 |
Livestock provide wealth creation opportunities
e.g. to merchants, cattle and camels more important as investments than for milk |
| 16 |
Residue grazing contracts with distant kin or
nomads |
| 17 |
3 |
| 18 |
2,3 |
| 19 |
3 |
| 20 |
1 (green manure used in Bay Region) |
| 21 |
1 or 2 |
| 22 |
3 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
Movement of agropastoralists to new borehole
sites and rangeland enclosures |
| 26 |
Land bought, leased, bartered; increasing in
value; shortage of open grazing; state's abolition of the clan opens registered
acquisition to outsiders |
| 27 |
Crop sales increasing, livestock sales; labour
migration (incl. overseas) crafts and services (Bay Region) |
| 28 |
Increasing commercialisation. Crop production is
subsistence orientated and may reduce market involvement in livestock (Bay Region).
Improvement of T of T for livestock producers 1970-78 except after drought. |
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
Enclosures of grazing as well as farmland (with
fallows) increasing - communal grazing land is rapidly becoming private mixed farms |
| 31 |
Old established integrated agro-pastoralism.
Coastal dunes reactivated by heavy grazing and cultivation; village dune formations; loss
of plant cover; breakdown of soil structure and loss of topsoil after 2 years cultivation.
Sowing and protection of fodder trees on fallows. Windbreaks. Long established, stable and
ecologically well adapted system; overstocking/degradation thesis is not supported well by
field evidence (Hoben et al) Field bunding, clean weeding to conserve moisture |
| 32 |
Increased livestock sales; intensified soil
exposure. |
| 1 |
22 |
| 2 |
Neunhauser, et al, 1983 |
| 3 |
Kenya, Machakos District - |
| 4 |
4-700 mm, 300 in long rains (SAZ, B, D/M) |
| 5 |
Akamba |
| 6 |
Old eroded basement rocks, volcanics; complex
soils low in organic matter (mostly <1%) Terrace management of steep slopes |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
l LU/1.6 acres farmland |
| 9 |
8.52 LU/farm average; cattle, goats, sheep,
chickens |
| 10 |
38% farmers have 1-5 LU; 97% farmers have cattle
or goats |
| 11 |
Common access grazing areas |
| 12 |
Privatised access to arable |
| 13 |
Milk (80% farmers milk cows, 45% milk goats) meat |
| 14 |
Livestock sales. More sellers than buyers in year
before survey |
| 15 |
Livestock production for milk or meat is not
profitable, therefore investment/contingency value is uppermost |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
3 (98% maize, 80% beans, cowpeas, pigeon peas) |
| 18 |
3? |
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 (field grazing 47%, risk of damaging terraces) |
| 21 |
3 |
| 22 |
2 or 3 |
| 23 |
1 or 2 |
| 24 |
2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Scarcity of arable; only 12% farmers fallow |
| 27 |
Income sources; animal sales 22%, off-farm work
21%, charcoal sales 6%, others 3% |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Overstocking technically but majority of farmers
consider they could support more animals. Terracing, weeds left on fields, animals
restricted in field grazing, tree/shrub planting, mulching and manuring all used to
control erosion on arable. On grazings, problem of erosion/degradation admitted |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
23 |
| 2 |
Friis-Hansen, 1986 |
| 3 |
Tanzania, Iringa District, NE of head of L Malawi |
| 4 |
>800 mm in 3 of 4 years (SAZ, U,M) |
| 5 |
Hehe/Benar |
| 6 |
Sandy loams, stony, low-medium fertility. Effects
of villagization on land use. |
| 7 |
2000 people in 400 households in l village |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Mainly cattle, also sheep and goats |
| 10 |
25% of peasants own 75% of cows and oxen |
| 11 |
Common access grazing lands on village periphery |
| 12 |
Private arable allocated on villagization |
| 13 |
|
| 14 |
Bridewealth; seldom sold |
| 15 |
Investment of agricultural surpluses |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
0 or 1 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
2 |
| 22 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2? |
| 25 |
Villagization, compelling concentration of
arable, increased distances to grazings, with labour (but children now at school);
increased crop damage by livestock |
| 26 |
New arable clearances increased remarkably;
afforestation project reducing grazing further |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
Rising prices, esp. maize, cat/sing adoption of
hybrid maize-inorganic fertilizer-pesticide package |
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
Hybrid maize; extension of arable; new grazing
patterns (villagization) |
| 31 |
Soil compaction by trampling on cattle tracks and
infertile bush near village, causing erosion |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
28 |
| 2 |
UNDP/RRC 1984: Getahun, 1978 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, NW Eritrea/Gondar, and extending W into
Sudan |
| 4 |
400 mm (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Beni Amer, nomads (70%) Saho, settled (30%) |
| 6 |
Recent impoverishment of nomads |
| 7 |
128,000 (80,000 B. Amer, 48,000 Saho, est. 1983
16/km2 |
| 8 |
20/km2 |
| 9 |
Camels, cattle (50-60/holding) sheep, goats |
| 10 |
Animals owned by individuals |
| 11 |
Dry season grazing rights customary or by
agreement; rights to land very well regulated; ownership of the feed base divided between
clans |
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
Milk |
| 14 |
Nomadic system supplies work oxen to other parts
of the country. Crop production deficit is made up by livestock production |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
|
