| Number |
Head |
Code |
| 1 |
|
Case study number(s) |
| 2 |
|
Source(s) |
|
DESCRIPTORS |
| 3 |
|
Country, locality |
| 4 |
|
Rainfall, environmental unit, and strata |
| 5 |
|
Ethnic group(s) |
| 6 |
|
Critical ecological indicators |
| 7 |
|
Human population, density, growth |
| 8 |
|
Livestock population, density, growth |
|
RESOURCE ACCESS |
| 9 |
|
Livestock/holding - types, numbers |
| 10 |
|
Livestock ownership determinants |
| 11 |
|
Access rights - grazing |
| 12 |
|
Access rights - farmland |
|
ECONOMIC INTEGRATION |
| 13 |
|
Contribution to subsistence |
| 14 |
|
Contribution to income |
| 15 |
|
Investment value |
| 16 |
|
Exchange contracts |
|
SYSTEM INTEGRATION (see below) |
| 17 |
|
Residues 0-3 |
| 18 |
|
Fodder trees 0-3 |
| 19 |
|
Fodder production 0-3 |
| 20 |
|
Manure 0-3 |
| 21 |
|
Traction 0-3 |
| 22 |
|
Transport 0-3 |
| 23 |
|
Cattle movements 0-3 |
| 24 |
|
SR movements 0-3 |
|
RECENT TRENDS, ECONOMIC |
| 25 |
|
Settlements |
| 26 |
|
Land supply - |
| 27 |
|
Specialisation, diversification |
| 28 |
|
Market impact, terms of trade |
|
RECENT TRENDS, ENVIRONMENTAL |
| 29 |
|
Intensity rating 0-3 (see below) |
| 30 |
|
New systems of resource use |
| 31 |
|
Degradation, sustainability |
| 32 |
|
Effects of drought |
| 17 |
1 |
Residues |
0 |
not used for fodder |
|
|
|
1 |
open access grazing of stover + stubble |
|
|
|
2 |
privatised stover (storage) + 0A stubble |
|
|
|
3 |
enclosure: privatised stover + stubble |
| 18 |
2 |
Fodder Trees |
0 |
none on farmland |
|
|
|
1 |
volunteers protected, 0A browsing |
|
|
|
2 |
plantings + protection, 0A browsing |
|
|
|
3 |
privatised, browsed, cut and carried |
| 19 |
3 |
Fodder production |
0 |
none |
|
|
|
1 |
cut and carried from natural vegetation |
|
|
|
2 |
cut and carried, bought and sold |
|
|
|
3 |
grown on farm, cut & carried, bought &
sold |
| 20 |
4 |
Manure |
0 |
not used for fertilisation |
|
|
|
1 |
'farm' system (field grazing, night paddocking) |
|
|
|
2 |
dry pen system + carrying + farm system |
|
|
|
3 |
composting + carrying + farm system |
| 21 |
5 |
Traction |
0 |
no animal draft power used |
|
|
|
1 |
draft animals owned or rented by minority |
|
|
|
2 |
draft animals owned or rented by majority |
|
|
|
3 |
draft animals owned by majority |
| 22 |
6 |
Transport |
0 |
no transport available |
|
|
|
1 |
owned or rented by minority |
|
|
|
2 |
owned or rented by majority |
|
|
|
3 |
owned by majority |
| 23 |
7 |
Cattle movements |
0 |
off farm for whole year |
|
|
|
1 |
outside community area all year, but off farm for
part of year |
|
|
|
2 |
in community areas all year, but off farm for
part of year |
|
|
|
3 |
on farm all year |
| 24 |
8 |
SR movements |
0 |
off farm all year |
|
|
|
1 |
outside community area for part of year |
|
|
|
2 |
in community area all year, but off farm for part
of year |
|
|
|
3 |
on farm all year |
| Grazing |
0 |
no farming except by livestock specialists
migrant herds |
| Enclave farming |
1 |
low cultivated percentage |
|
|
low degree of integration |
|
|
common access grazing extensive |
|
|
many livestock specialists |
|
|
migrant herds visiting |
|
|
little nutrient cycling |
|
|
some nutrient transfer |
|
|
long fallows (main fertility strategy) no trees
on arable |
| Enclave grazing |
2 |
high cultivated percentage >20 |
|
|
high degree of integration |
|
|
common access grazing restricted |
|
|
some livestock specialists |
|
|
transhumance for cattle |
|
|
nutrient cycling (residues - manure) |
|
|
nutrient transfer (paddocking) |
|
|
short fallows - insufficient to maintain arable
fertility |
|
|
some trees on arable |
| Intensive farming |
3 |
very high cultivated percentage >70 |
|
|
highest degree of integration |
|
|
common access grazing limited to residual |
|
|
marginal or flooded land |
|
|
livestock owned by farmers |
|
|
transhumance or stall feeding for cattle |
|
|
intensive nutrient cycling (residues manure) |
|
|
very short fallows, or none |
|
|
trees important on arable |
| 1 |
1 |
| 2 |
Toulmin (ms.nd); Toulmin 1983 |
| 3 |
Mali: Segou region, N of Niger (Kale Village) |
| 4 |
4-500mm (SAZ U,D) EU |
| 5 |
Bambara, Fulani, Maures |
| 6 |
Flat, old dunes, depth to iron pan variable |
| 7 |
7/km2 |
| 8 |
20-30% reduction in rainfall after 1970 |
| 9 |
Livestock/hh:21 cattle, 24 SR, 1.6 donkeys, 0.6
horses |
| 10 |
Bambara-farmers with cattle (male owned) and SR
(male or female owned) Fulani - herders with farms Maure/Fulani herder specialists
(seasonal visitors) |
| 11 |
Open access to grazing land |
| 12 |
Bambara try to stop Fulani settling and digging
wells |
| 13 |
Milk |
| 14 |
Milk sales generate income for marriage and other
expenses |
| 15 |
Groundnut profits invested in cattle,
1950s-1960s, which are sold for cash or contingencies. Their value as marketable assets is
stressed. |
| 16 |
Bambara entrust livestock to Fulani (wet) Bambara
pay grain, cash, food or allow access to private wells in exchange for field coralling.
Bambara pay hired herders millet and milk; do not herd their own cattle. Fulani hire
labour for weeding. |
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
2 or 3 |
| 22 |
2 or 3 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
In-migration and settlement dispersal. |
| 26 |
Increasing arable, decreasing grazing; Bambara
attempt to limit strangers' access to arable. |
| 27 |
'Homogenisation' of Fulani and Bambara
traditional specializations, and economic strategies. Diversification of income sources;
fattening of sheep/goats by 'retired' elderly; migratory labour especially in smaller
households. |
| 28 |
Strong market for livestock sales. |
| 29 |
1 - system depends on abundant supply of arable
and long fallows (30 years or more) of bush fields. |
| 30 |
(1) increase in private wells - ownership of a
well generates enough manure, from the equivalent of 15 cattle year-round (owned or
visiting) to fertilize 3ha (2) Decline of groundnut and of individual forms of production
(3) Use of plough for both weeding and ridging (4) Increase in manured area. (5) Increase
in livestock numbers. |
| 31 |
Decline of perennial grasses; tree mortality. |
| 32 |
Increasing preference for short-cycle millet.
Movement of herders into farming. |
| 1 |
2 |
| 2 |
Mortimore, 1990, Hendy, 1977 |
| 3 |
Nigeria: Kano Close-Settled Zone |
| 4 |
813 mm: (SAZ, UM) |
| 5 |
Hausa (80%); Fulani (20%) |
| 6 |
Aeolian sands cover 90% surface, 90-91% sand.
Sandy-loams in fadama depressions. Almost all natural vegetation eliminated. 26% reduction
in August rainfall, 1931-60/1966-85 |
| 7 |
4-500/km2 at 2-3%(?) |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle 0.6/farm unit, sheep 5.3, goats 8.1,
donkeys 0.8, fowls 18 |
| 10 |
Cattle owned by sedentary Fulani, SR by all
households. Percent of farm units owning cattle, 9; sheep, 72; goats 93; donkeys 61; hens
89. |
| 11 |
Open access to residual bush |
| 12 |
Inheritance, purchase, borrowing, renting.
Alienation to outsiders is not favoured |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (special occasions) |
| 14 |
Milk sales; manure may be sold; SR breeding for
sale |
| 15 |
Investment value of all livestock stressed; SR
more easily acquired or sold to meet cash needs |
| 16 |
Cattle owners entrust to neighbours for wet
season transhumance. Coralling contracts now rare. |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
3 |
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
1 |
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
Little migration. Dispersed households
reorganised into compact villages. |
| 26 |
Extreme scarcity; use of marginal sites. |
| 27 |
Diversification highly developed into off farm
occupations and labour/trading circulation (dry season) and urban wage employment. |
| 28 |
Highly developed cash economy through formal and
informal market structures. |
| 29 |
3 |
| 30 |
(1) Decline of groundnuts since 1975; (2) partial
substitution of cowpeas (including improved); (3) increased use of inorganic fertilizers;
(4) increased grain sales; (5) increased use of plough |
| 31 |
Stable soil chemical and physical properties
1977-90 (average); stable and regenerating numbers/densities of farm trees |
| 32 |
Preference for short season millet over sorghum
in some areas; household economic diversification. |
| 1 |
3 |
| 2 |
Mortimore, 1989 |
| 3 |
Nigeria, NE Kano, NW Borno |
| 4 |
430 mm (SAZ UD) |
| 5 |
Manga (80%), Hausa (15%) Fulani (5%) |
| 6 |
Aeolian dune sands and depressions. 25% reduction
in rainfall, 1942-60/1970-85: |
| 7 |
100-150/km2 at 2-3%(?) |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Fulani herds: cattle 7, SR 10 (1972); 6 and 7
(1974). Hausa herds: cattle 3, SR 7 (1972); 1 and 3 (1974) |
| 10 |
Livestock specialists (Fulani) own more, esp.
cattle. Cattle ownership associated with wealth. Women own SR. |
| 11 |
Common access to administratively reserved
grazing areas, but customary use by resident Fulani. Fodder may be privatised and sold. |
| 12 |
Manga - inheritance mainly; also reallocation of
unused plots. Hausa (in-migrants) - allocation by Manga head. Fulani enclosure of grazing
land. |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (special occasions) |
| 14 |
Milk-grain exchanges; milk sales; sale of bred
stock; hire of transport animals. |
| 15 |
Animals highly valued as investments; sale for
cash needs, contingencies. SR readily sold when necessary. |
| 16 |
Entrustment rare because Manga cattle ownership
much reduced; night coralling in exchange for grain or money uncommon; hired herders
uncommon. |
| 17 |
1 |
| 18 |
1 |
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 (infield) |
| 21 |
1 |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
In-migrants start new villages or attachments to
existing ones. |
| 26 |
Cultivated percentage increased from 28% in 1950
to 39% in 1981. |
| 27 |
Intensified involvement of Manga in labour
circulation and trading animals (Lagos); increasing diversity of alternative income
opportunities. |
| 28 |
Fluctuating crop: livestock ToT influenced by
rainfall and other external factors; decline of groundnut sales since 1975 and attempts to
find marketable substitutes. |
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Ploughs or labour saving hoe (ashasha) used to
extend cultivated area per h/hold. |
| 31 |
Shortage of fallow land. Yield trends cannot be
controlled for rainfall effects. Heavy stocking on grazing areas. |
| 32 |
Increased nomadic herds from farther north;
intensified labour circulation and off-farm income seeking; experimentation with shor
season crops. |
| 1 |
4 |
| 2 |
Gulbrandsen, 1980; Lawry 1983; Abel et al, 1987;
Flint, 1986. |
| 3 |
Botswana, Ngwaketse District, Kanye area
(Gulbrandsen) and Pelotshetla lands area (Abel et al.) |
| 4 |
516 mm (SAZ, ST, D) |
| 5 |
Tswana |
| 6 |
Clays, clay loams (seloko). Sandy soils
(mothlaba) |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle and donkeys. 10-12 cattle are needed to
support a draft team of 6; 21-30 to support 6 oxen. 70% farms hold cattle; 55% own cattle;
5TLU/head, highest in Africa (Botswana data) |
| 10 |
Age: in h/holds headed by men >50 yrs, 87%
have >11 cattle; in those <50 years, 74% have <10. Most female headed households
have <10. Wealth: ave. income of owners of >45 cattle is 3x that of owners of
<16. |
| 11 |
Communal, except where privatised under the
provisions of the TGLP. |
| 12 |
Communal, that is grazing land can be freely
converted. |
| 13 |
Milk (but primary purpose of keeping cattle is
for draft). |
| 14 |
Via draft: milk, meat and in-kind products
represent >50% value of small herds esp. SR. Cash sales 45% income of large herds, esp.
cattle. |
| 15 |
Cattle are valued as investments because of
breeding capability, but sales avoided to protect the ploughteam, unless surplus. |
| 16 |
Herd boys take herds to cattle posts during the
farming season. Later h/h management agreements. |
| 17 |
2(?) |
| 18 |
0(?) |
| 19 |
1 |
| 20 |
1 |
| 21 |
3 |
| 22 |
3 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2(?) |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Grazing area declining as arable expands (3%
doubling yearly), communal grazing reduced by private grazing enclosures; new grazing
areas opened up by private boreholes. |
| 27 |
Labour circulation (S African mines) funds
livestock investments; very few h/h depend exclusively on agro-pastoralism - 75% have at
least 1 wage employee. |
| 28 |
Economic returns of farming low; food supply is
dominant objective; Cattle offtake is 8% (traditional sector). |
| 29 |
1 or 2 |
| 30 |
Privatised boreholes and grazing enclosures. |
| 31 |
'Overgrazing' (change of species and reduced
plant density) is localised (boreholes) and not generally admitted by farmers. But
stocking rate in Botswana CAs is 4.2 ha/LSU (recommended rate 12 |
| 32 |
Intensifies dependence on non-agricultural
incomes. |
| 1 |
5 |
| 2 |
Gregoire, 1980; Gregoire & Raynaut, 1980;
Boulier and Jouve, 1988: Raynaut, 1977: |
| 3 |
Niger, Maradi area. |
| 4 |
<400 mm (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Hausa (80%); Fulani (20%) |
| 6 |
Ferruginous tropical sands on old dunes (jigawa),
93% sand. Ferruginous tropical compact soils (geza), 89% sand. Hydromorphic (fadama), 78%
sand. Reduced rainfall in last 20 years. |
| 7 |
1642 at 28/km2 (1977) |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
per unit 8.0 goats, 2.5 sheep, 0.4 cattle, 0.25
horses/donkeys, 0.2 camels; l goat/person. |
| 10 |
Size of holding - cattle restricted to >3 ha.
Women own 70% goats 51% sheep 35% cattle. LUs: Fulani own 64% cattle, Hausa 54% sheep, 22%
goats. |
| 11 |
Common or open access to grazing, fallows,
fields. |
| 12 |
Inheritance, allocation, purchase, loan, hiring
(recent) |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (special occasions) |
| 14 |
17% unit heads, monetary income from
pastoralism/animal products, much higher for specialists; 42% women's' income. |
| 15 |
Capitalisation in small livestock a vital form of
saving and revenue generation. |
| 16 |
Manuring contracts have nearly disappeared.
Entrustment also regressing (Fulanis taking up farming). |
| 17 |
Transitional, 1-2 |
| 18 |
1 or 2 |
| 19 |
2(?) |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
1 (33%) |
| 22 |
2(?) |
| 23 |
1 or 2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
(1) Cultivated area grows at 4%/yr (1957-75) |
|
(2) Cultivated area grows on north and south at
2.4 and 2.5%/yr (1960-68) increasing to 6.9 and 3.1% (1968-70) and falling to 3.4 and 3.1
(1979-85) |
| 27 |
Migration is generally temporary. Local
alternative income sources are more important. |
| 28 |
1970 1 cow = 15 bags millet |
|
1976 1 cow = 25 bags millet |
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Extensification of farming system, 1968-79 (see
26) |
| 31 |
Loss of equilibrium between cultivation and
grazing (nutrient transfer). Shortening fallows. |
| 32 |
Loss of livestock contributing to shortage of
manure. |
| 1 |
6 |
| 2 |
Holtzman, 1987; Hallaire, 1971 |
| 3 |
Cameroun, Mokolo area - Mandara Mts. |
| 4 |
6-1100 mm (SAZ, U,M) |
| 5 |
Mafa (Mandara) |
| 6 |
Decomposed granite severely eroded, coarse gravel
soils, steep slopes; Terrace management of steep slopes |
| 7 |
547,748 in Region at >200/km2
(1976) |
| 8 |
(Cattle) 68/km2 in region |
| 9 |
Ave. 1.1 bulls/household, stall feeding system
over 26 months (ave) |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
One third (39%, 1977-81) of bulls slaughtered are
used for festivals/subsistence (extended family) |
| 14 |
Two thirds (61% 1977-81) of fattened bulls are
sold wholly or partly, paying taxes, financing purchases |
| 15 |
Beef sales revenue invested in more animals. |
| 16 |
Fulani herders may be paid in grain, legumes or
food for grazing residues. Herding by children (dry season) |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
0 or 1 |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
2 (stall fed 7 months) |
| 24 |
|
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Scarce |
| 27 |
Beer brewing, firewood collection, grass
collection/storage, labouring locally or in towns |
| 28 |
Increasing monetization even in remote villages.
Cattle prices increased at 9%/yr, 1972-80. |
| 29 |
3 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
|
| 32 |
Withdrawal of cattle from the market for herd
reconstitution. |
| 1 |
7 |
| 2 |
Blench, 1987 |
| 3 |
Sudan, Gezira |
| 4 |
(AZ) |
| 5 |
Arab, Fulani (Fellata) |
| 6 |
Black cotton soils, Irrigation scheme |
| 8 |
Feb 1986 and April 1986/km2 |
|
|
17 |
23 |
cattle |
|
|
62 |
80 |
small ruminants |
|
|
19 |
19 |
donkeys |
| 9 |
4,2 cattle, 12.7 SR and 1.3 donkeys/household
with important differences between Gezira and Managil, tenants and non-tenants |
| 10 |
Tenants have larger holdings of livestock; but
40% owned by sharecroppers/labourers especially SR. |
| 11 |
Open access off-scheme, restricted on-scheme |
| 12 |
Scheme holdings (irrigated) operated by tenants;
share croppers. |
| 13 |
Milk, meat, domestic transport |
| 14 |
Sale of milk, cheese, meat, transport animals
(donkeys) and fattened sheep. |
| 15 |
|
| 16 |
Hired herders Herding contracts (with nomads?)
especially for smaller livestock owners |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
3 (lubia) dropped in 1970s; now 2 (?) |
| 20 |
2(?) |
| 21 |
1 or 2 |
| 22 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
0 or 1 (off scheme for most of the year) |
| 24 |
1 or 2 (?) |
| 25 |
Ethnic diversity and recent influx of labourers
and share croppers from W. Sudan. |
| 26 |
Restricted by irrigation availability. |
| 27 |
Cheese making, dairy, sheep fattening, donkey
breeding specialisations. |
| 28 |
ToT continue to favour livestock owners rather
than cotton producers. Dairy marketing efficient; demand exceeds supply. |
| 29 |
3 (irrigated) |
| 30 |
Increasing use of off-scheme or distant grazings
by scheme livestock owners. |
| 31 |
Deforestation due to charcoal making in areas S
of scheme has reduced tsetse risk. |
| 32 |
Transfer of cattle from nomads to wealthy scheme
residents 40%-60% losses in 1980s. |
| 1 |
8 |
| 2 |
Morton 1988 |
| 3 |
Sudan, Kassala Province, N & S of Gedaref |
| 4 |
2-600 mm (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Lahawin |
| 6 |
Cracking days: alluvial (jerif) along rivers
Atbara, Setit Rivers in incised valleys |
| 7 |
8-9000 Lahawin W bank of Atbara |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Camels cattle SR |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Collective rights to dry season grazings near
rivers; open access to wet season grazings between rivers |
| 12 |
Some Lahawin are tenants on New Halfa irrigation
scheme |
|
Family customary rights to arable; some
registered holdings |
| 13 |
Milk is reserved for herds and domestic
consumption. skins, etc. |
| 14 |
Regular sales to finance food purchases, e.g.
25-30 sheep, 3-4 camels/yr/family |
| 15 |
Many large herds; wealthy remain in pastoralism;
camels most highly valued for investment |
| 16 |
Deals between units of extended family to share
herding (esp. wet season transhumance) and farming responsibilities. Merchants and scheme
farmers hire herders. |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 or 1(?) |
| 20 |
1 (?) |
| 21 |
1 or 2 (?) |
| 22 |
3 |
| 23 |
1 (transhumance) |
| 24 |
1 or 2(?) |
| 25 |
Settlement (1950s) to claim dry season lands |
|
Settlement (1980s) owing to loss of stock |
| 26 |
Wet season grazing areas are liable to
expropriation (mechanised farming). Scarcity of dry season lands, appropriation by
farmers. |
| 27 |
Wage labour on mechanised farms |
| 28 |
Residues marketed |
|
Monetization associated with scheme |
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
Expanding mechanised farms Irrigation scheme
(mechanised). |
|
Nomad settlement |
| 31 |
Soil erosion and exhaustion on (mechanised farms,
cultivation north of the legal limit. Woodcutting. Reservoir siltation. Banditry in border
area discourages grazing. |
| 32 |
Loss of stock <100%, suspension of
transhumance, settlement. |
| 1 |
9 |
| 2 |
Boulier and Jouve, 1988: Lericollais, 1972 |
| 3 |
Senegal, Fatick area |
| 4 |
570 mm (SAZ, U,M) |
| 5 |
Serer |
| 6 |
Ferruginous tropical sand (dior) 90% sand |
|
Hydromorphic sandy loam (dek) 89% sand 35%
reduced rainfall 1930-65/1966-82 |
| 7 |
85/km2 |
| 8 |
80 UBT/km2 |
| 9 |
12 UBT/herd (sedentary farmers, breeders) |
| 10 |
66% land holdings have no cattle; number
increases with size of holding |
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
Land loans increasing - 25% cultivated area, 40%
holdings |
| 13 |
|
| 14 |
Cattle fattening second to farming (groundnuts)
as source of income |
| 15 |
Capitalization and saving in livestock |
| 16 |
No contracts (no nomads or semi-nomads) |
| 17 |
1 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 or 1(?) |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
2 |
| 22 |
1 or 2(?) |
| 23 |
2 (enclosed fallows in wet) |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Cultivated area increasing; decline in grazing |
| 27 |
50% holdings affected by migration; earnings also
from local off farm activities |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Increasing transhumance because of forage
shortage; emergence of smaller production/consumption groups |
| 1 |
Fertility decline owing to extension of
cultivated area and reduction in manure supply caused by increase in transhumance -
'extensification' |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
10 |
| 2 |
Boulier and Jouve 1988: Bradley et al 1977 |
| 3 |
Mauritania, Guidimaka (south) |
| 4 |
460 mm (SAZ, U. M/D) |
| 5 |
Soninke (55%) Maures (25%) Fulani (15%) |
| 6 |
Aeolian sands (signa) 94% sand sand-loam,
loam-sand (niarwalle) 77% sand hydromorphic (katamagne) 45% sand 29% reduced rainfall
1930-65/1966-82 |
| 7 |
10 km2 |
| 8 |
10 UBT/km2 |
| 9 |
12 UBT/herd, sedentary |
|
28 UBT/herd, semi-nomadic |
| 10 |
Soninke, Toucouleur sedentary |
|
Fulani, Maure semi nomadic, nomadic |
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
milk, meat |
| 14 |
milk-grain exchanges between farmers and
pastoralists, Livestock second source of monetary income after migration |
| 15 |
Investment value - capitalisation and saving |
| 16 |
Entrustment of cultivators' animals to
pastoralists |
|
Manure contracts less important |
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 or 1(?) |
| 20 |
1 |
| 21 |
0 |
| 22 |
1(?) |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2(?) |
| 25 |
Since 1970 'exode' includes temporary, long term
and permanent |
| 26 |
Cultivated area reduced in response to the crisis
of the system |
| 27 |
Earnings from labour migration supplement food
supply, pay for labour and other agricultural activities - principle source of monetary
income |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Overstocking causing degradation of pasture. Wind
and water erosion follows the extension of the cultivated area, and capping |
| 32 |
Loss of tree cover |
| 1 |
12 |
| 2 |
Boulier and Jouve 1988: Marchal 1983 |
| 3 |
Burkina Faso, Yatenga, Ouahigouya area |
| 4 |
570 mm (SAZ, U,M.) |
| 5 |
Mossi (70%) Kurumba (20%), Fulani (20%) |
| 6 |
Gravels and sands (zenka, binsiri) 75, 74% sand
Sandy-clay, sand loam (dagare, kissogho)? Loamy clay (baogo) 51% sand 21% reduced rainfall
1950-65/1966-82 |
| 7 |
45/km2 |
| 8 |
20 UBT/km2 |
| 9 |
4 UBT/herd sedentary |
| 17 |
ditto semi nomads |
| 10 |
Mossi own fewer cattle, more sheep, many more
goats and horses than Fulani 35% holdings have no cattle |
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
|
| 14 |
Livestock second after migration ('exode') as
source of monetary income |
| 15 |
Livestock valued for capitalization and saving;
'primordial' role in Fulani economies |
| 16 |
Entrustment contracts graded important. Manuring
contracts less important, and declining |
| 17 |
1 or 2 (increasing) |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 or 1?() |
| 20 |
1, declining |
| 21 |
1 |
| 22 |
1(?) |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2(?) |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Fallows diminishing; recent appearance of land
loans; appropriation of land/residues by farmers, retreat of pastoralists to interstices. |
| 27 |
20% of the population involved in migration, the
most important source of monetary income, followed by 'local activities' and livestock |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Decline of ploughing; 'extensification' |
| 31 |
Extensification - less manure owing to separation
of farming (sedentary) from livestock (semi nomadic) systems |
| 32 |
Sale of plough stock and tools Shorter rainy
season reduces time available for cultivation, decline in ploughing |
| 1 |
13 |
| 2 |
Boulier & Jouve, 1988 |
| 3 |
Burkina Faso, Oudalan (NE) Dori area |
| 4 |
470 (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Tuareg (50%), Fulani (25%), Songhai (15%).
Rimaibe (10%) - last two sedentary |
| 6 |
Dune sands, 90% sand |
|
Piedmont sands, 92% sand |
|
Sandy loams in depressions (bas-fonds) 63% sand
16% reduced rainfall 1930-65/1966-82 |
| 7 |
7/km2 |
| 8 |
20 UBT/km2 |
| 9 |
8 UBT/herd (sedentary) |
|
35 UBT/herd (semi-nomadic) |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Open access to residues: Common access to village
pastures |
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
Milk very important |
| 14 |
Livestock activity the most important source of
revenue; financing chronic food grain deficits |
| 15 |
Capitalisation, saving less important than
current revenue |
| 16 |
Manure contracts very important: Entrustment
contracts important |
| 17 |
1, 2 increasing |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
1 |
| 21 |
0 |
| 22 |
1? |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Pasture scarcity owing to arable expansion |
| 27 |
Cash crops, migration and local activities all
unimportant as sources of revenue |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Degraded tree and shrub cover, overstocking near
water in dry season |
| 32 |
Sales of livestock |
| 1 |
19 |
| 2 |
Roth et al 1987 |
| 3 |
Somalia, S. Shalambood Irrign. Scheme on R.
Shebelle |
| 4 |
(AZ/SAZ, B,D) |
| 5 |
Somali |
| 6 |
Irrigation |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys; 8.4
animals/household (3.2 small owners, 15.3 large owners) |
| 10 |
34% households own livestock; women may own all
but camels and donkeys |
| 11 |
Grazing at house, on canals, around scheme |
| 12 |
Irrigated farms on scheme, but few have
registered holdings; insecurity |
| 13 |
Milk, meat |
| 14 |
Hides and leather products sold |
| 15 |
|
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
0 usually (manure used for house building) |
| 21 |
|
| 22 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
l (large owners) 2 (small owners) |
| 24 |
2(?) |
| 25 |
New Settlements on scheme |
| 26 |
Irrigated land scarce and sought after (land
grabbing); off-scheme grazing essential for larger owners (>6 animals) |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
3 |
| 30 |
Irrigation and intensified use of off-scheme
grazings by farmers |
| 31 |
|
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
21 |
| 2 |
Holt, 1986 (Behnke and Kerven, 1964): Hoben et
al, 1983 |
| 3 |
Somalia, central rangelands (and Bay region) |
| 4 |
250-300 mm (SAZ/AZ, B,D) |
| 5 |
Somali |
| 6 |
Stabilised sand dunes over limestone White
plateau (inland) soils Rainfall is relatively reliable |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Goats (80/hh) sheep (32) camels (13) cattle (10)
poultry' |
| 10 |
70-80% pastoralists own farms; 90-95% farmers own
livestock. Women own sheep, goats, poultry |
| 11 |
Common access to rangeland for all Somalis unless
enclosed |
| 12 |
Customary rights by enclosure; now State 50 yr
leases for up to 60 ha; subject to cultivation or development within 2 years. Sales,
leases, barter |
| 13 |
Milk, meat |
| 14 |
Increasing sales of livestock; crop sales may
finance animal purchases; milk sales to buy grain |
| 15 |
Livestock provide wealth creation opportunities
e.g. to merchants, cattle and camels more important as investments than for milk |
| 16 |
Residue grazing contracts with distant kin or
nomads |
| 17 |
3 |
| 18 |
2,3 |
| 19 |
3 |
| 20 |
1 (green manure used in Bay Region) |
| 21 |
1 or 2 |
| 22 |
3 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
Movement of agropastoralists to new borehole
sites and rangeland enclosures |
| 26 |
Land bought, leased, bartered; increasing in
value; shortage of open grazing; state's abolition of the clan opens registered
acquisition to outsiders |
| 27 |
Crop sales increasing, livestock sales; labour
migration (incl. overseas) crafts and services (Bay Region) |
| 28 |
Increasing commercialisation. Crop production is
subsistence orientated and may reduce market involvement in livestock (Bay Region).
Improvement of T of T for livestock producers 1970-78 except after drought. |
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
Enclosures of grazing as well as farmland (with
fallows) increasing - communal grazing land is rapidly becoming private mixed farms |
| 31 |
Old established integrated agro-pastoralism.
Coastal dunes reactivated by heavy grazing and cultivation; village dune formations; loss
of plant cover; breakdown of soil structure and loss of topsoil after 2 years cultivation.
Sowing and protection of fodder trees on fallows. Windbreaks. Long established, stable and
ecologically well adapted system; overstocking/degradation thesis is not supported well by
field evidence (Hoben et al) Field bunding, clean weeding to conserve moisture |
| 32 |
Increased livestock sales; intensified soil
exposure. |
| 1 |
22 |
| 2 |
Neunhauser, et al, 1983 |
| 3 |
Kenya, Machakos District - |
| 4 |
4-700 mm, 300 in long rains (SAZ, B, D/M) |
| 5 |
Akamba |
| 6 |
Old eroded basement rocks, volcanics; complex
soils low in organic matter (mostly <1%) Terrace management of steep slopes |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
l LU/1.6 acres farmland |
| 9 |
8.52 LU/farm average; cattle, goats, sheep,
chickens |
| 10 |
38% farmers have 1-5 LU; 97% farmers have cattle
or goats |
| 11 |
Common access grazing areas |
| 12 |
Privatised access to arable |
| 13 |
Milk (80% farmers milk cows, 45% milk goats) meat |
| 14 |
Livestock sales. More sellers than buyers in year
before survey |
| 15 |
Livestock production for milk or meat is not
profitable, therefore investment/contingency value is uppermost |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
3 (98% maize, 80% beans, cowpeas, pigeon peas) |
| 18 |
3? |
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 (field grazing 47%, risk of damaging terraces) |
| 21 |
3 |
| 22 |
2 or 3 |
| 23 |
1 or 2 |
| 24 |
2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Scarcity of arable; only 12% farmers fallow |
| 27 |
Income sources; animal sales 22%, off-farm work
21%, charcoal sales 6%, others 3% |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Overstocking technically but majority of farmers
consider they could support more animals. Terracing, weeds left on fields, animals
restricted in field grazing, tree/shrub planting, mulching and manuring all used to
control erosion on arable. On grazings, problem of erosion/degradation admitted |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
23 |
| 2 |
Friis-Hansen, 1986 |
| 3 |
Tanzania, Iringa District, NE of head of L Malawi |
| 4 |
>800 mm in 3 of 4 years (SAZ, U,M) |
| 5 |
Hehe/Benar |
| 6 |
Sandy loams, stony, low-medium fertility. Effects
of villagization on land use. |
| 7 |
2000 people in 400 households in l village |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Mainly cattle, also sheep and goats |
| 10 |
25% of peasants own 75% of cows and oxen |
| 11 |
Common access grazing lands on village periphery |
| 12 |
Private arable allocated on villagization |
| 13 |
|
| 14 |
Bridewealth; seldom sold |
| 15 |
Investment of agricultural surpluses |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
0 or 1 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
2 |
| 22 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2? |
| 25 |
Villagization, compelling concentration of
arable, increased distances to grazings, with labour (but children now at school);
increased crop damage by livestock |
| 26 |
New arable clearances increased remarkably;
afforestation project reducing grazing further |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
Rising prices, esp. maize, cat/sing adoption of
hybrid maize-inorganic fertilizer-pesticide package |
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
Hybrid maize; extension of arable; new grazing
patterns (villagization) |
| 31 |
Soil compaction by trampling on cattle tracks and
infertile bush near village, causing erosion |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
28 |
| 2 |
UNDP/RRC 1984: Getahun, 1978 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, NW Eritrea/Gondar, and extending W into
Sudan |
| 4 |
400 mm (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Beni Amer, nomads (70%) Saho, settled (30%) |
| 6 |
Recent impoverishment of nomads |
| 7 |
128,000 (80,000 B. Amer, 48,000 Saho, est. 1983
16/km2 |
| 8 |
20/km2 |
| 9 |
Camels, cattle (50-60/holding) sheep, goats |
| 10 |
Animals owned by individuals |
| 11 |
Dry season grazing rights customary or by
agreement; rights to land very well regulated; ownership of the feed base divided between
clans |
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
Milk |
| 14 |
Nomadic system supplies work oxen to other parts
of the country. Crop production deficit is made up by livestock production |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1 or 2? |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0? |
| 20 |
|
| 21 |
|
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
1? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Arable encroachment by highland farmers on
rangelands; agricultural projects and national parks |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
No markets |
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
Nomads despise farming but have taken to it to
supplement livestock or (if impoverished) replace it. |
| 31 |
Overstocking alleged; overgrazing, destruction of
vegetation in some areas; unproductive invasive species in rangeland. Lower areas
undisturbed. |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
29 |
| 2 |
Deihl, 1976 (Strecker, 1976); UNDP/RCC, 1984
Agrotec, 1974 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, S Gamu Gofa Province |
| 4 |
4-700 mm (SAZ, B. M/D) |
| 5 |
Dassenich (Geleb) |
| 6 |
River floods in June. Irrigation and delta
culture (L. Rudolph) |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
4.7 goats/hh; 1.6 cows/hh; donkeys; chickens
(recent) |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Open access grazing |
| 12 |
Farmland along River Omo claimed by first user;
heritable |
| 13 |
Milk and blood; meat at festivals |
| 14 |
Bridewealth; sales to buy guns, etc. dried meat
sold |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1? |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0? |
| 20 |
0? |
| 21 |
0 |
| 22 |
|
| 23 |
2? |
| 24 |
1 or 2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Abundant |
| 27 |
Gamu Gofa groups do not depend on crops or
livestock exclusively. Also fishing |
| 28 |
Remote from markets, most trading by barter;
occasional visits to Kenya trading posts |
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
Flood recession cultivation in Omo delta, L
Rudolph, and irrigation along river |
| 31 |
Tsetse advancing S. |
| 32 |
|
| 2 |
Ayele, 1982; Yenegnuhal 1981; Getahun, 1978;
JEPSS, 1983 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, Wollo Province, Ambasel, Woreda/Sirinka
Valley, NE escarpment |
| 4 |
<450 - >800 mm (SAZ, B,M/D) |
| 5 |
Oromo, Afar (lowlands). Amhara (highlands).
Description applies to Oromo. |
| 6 |
Altitudinal profile fundamental; Highlands
(>1800 mm) dega, Amhara farmers. |
|
Valley/bench (1500-1800m) woina dega, Borkenna,
Amhara farmers. |
|
Lowlands (<1400m) kola Oromo mixed farmers.
Rangelands, Afar nomads: |
|
Rainfall diminishes with altitude. |
|
Rugged terrain on slopes, swamps in valley,
alluvial soils in lowlands |
| 7 |
30(S) - 60 (N)/km2 (1978 est) |
| 8 |
17-20/km (cattle) (1978 est) |
| 9 |
Cattle 4.2/hh, sheep 0.3/hh, goats 0.8/hh,
poultry; Yenegnuhal gives 2.5 cattle, 3.2 sheep, 2.5 goats, 2.2 chickens, 1.5
donkeys/horse/mule per farmer for Ambasel Woreda (68% > 1400m) |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Open access rangeland in the Afar-Oromo buffer
zone; armed clashes |
| 12 |
Private ownership of farmland in the Central
Valley & Oromo lowlands |
| 13 |
Milk (cows, goats) eggs |
| 14 |
Sale/renting of transport animals; sale of
animals to buy grain; fattening of Afar animals for sale |
| 15 |
After drought, reinvestment in livestock |
| 16 |
Herding contracts with Afar in Afar rangelands,
March (if small rains fall) or July till October. Residue grazing contracts with Afar
friends, Oromo lowlands; Dec - Jan. Middleman contracts to graze central valley farmers
cattle in Afar - Oromo buffer zone or subcontract them to Afar herders, July-Aug.
Contracts to graze their small stock (with women and children) on Borkenna residues, dry
seasons. Renting plough oxen from Afars for share cropping or grain payments (banned by
Government). Selling labour to Afar irrigated cotton farmers. Share cropping with migrant
farmers from central valley, who provide seed, oxen, labour. All Contracts may involve
cash payments |
| 17 |
2 or 3 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
2 |
| 22 |
3 (1.4 oxen and 0.8 plough/farmer) |
| 23 |
1 (cattle only on farm for 2 months for residues) |
| 24 |
1 25 - |
| 26 |
Scarce: conflict over rangeland; contracts to
equalise land and labour in altitudinal zones. Arable expansion in central valley reduces
grazing; needed as retreat in dry years |
| 27 |
Migrant labour (male) and service (women), Assob,
sale of ropes, wood, weaving; livestock trading. Fattening cattle for sale |
| 28 |
Integration by exchange contracts, which depends
on market. |
| 29 |
2 or 3 |
| 30 |
Intensified contracts(?) |
| 31 |
Range deterioration in Afar country if the
grazing shortage further intensifies competition. Devegetation and erosion on slopes
(Yenegnuhal) Firewood, charcoal. Ploughing slopes up to 60° |
| 32 |
Loss of livestock, income diversification |
| 1 |
33 |
| 2 |
Strecker, 1976; UNDP/RCC, 1984 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, S Gamu Gofa Province |
| 4 |
(SAZ, B. MD) |
| 5 |
Hamar |
| 6 |
River floods in June |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle Sheep Goats Donkeys |
| 10 |
Hamar specialise in goats |
| 11 |
Open access grazing but certain areas claimed
jointly or exclusively by segments |
| 12 |
Territorial segments tend to be observed |
| 13 |
Milk, blood; meat at festivals; hides for various
purposes |
| 14 |
|
| 15 |
Cattle ownership highly valued |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1? |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0? |
| 20 |
0 (slash/burn, flood plain siltation
alternatives); 1 (tobacco planted on corral sites) |
| 21 |
0 |
| 22 |
|
| 23 |
2? |
| 24 |
1 or 2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Abundant |
| 27 |
Gamu Gofa groups do not depend on livestock or
crops exclusively. Also fishing |
| 28 |
Cattle traded for guns, goats or honey for cloth,
coffee, grain. Volume of import-export trade may not reach value of 1 cow/6 goats/hh/2yrs. |
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
Flood recession cultivation in Omo delta, L
Rudolph, and irrigation along river. |
| 31 |
Tsetse spreading S. Soil depletion in medium
altitude locations |
| 32 |
Fluctuations in levels of rivers and L. Rudolph |
| 1 |
37 |
| 2 |
Ayele, 1975 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, Arsi Province, Bale sub - highlands |
| 4 |
600 mm (SAZ, B, M) |
| 5 |
|
| 6 |
Altitude 1,600 - 1000m. Rainfall falls with
altitude. Genale R perennial water, scarce in S. |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Small sample averaged 30 cattle, 5 goats, 2
horses, 5-6 camels/owner interviewed |
| 10 |
Cattle ownership varies from 100 to 3/owner rich
to poor. Marriage gifts and inheritance influence holdings, also management (disease
control) |
| 11 |
|
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
Milk (cows, camels, goats) |
| 14 |
Cattle and goat sales out of necessity,
bridewealth; income of small sample: honey 71% livestock 41% cereals 13%; fattening oxen,
bulls for market |
| 15 |
|
| 16 |
Split families; livestock to highlands dry, to
lowlands wet. Renting oxen from livestock specialists |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
1 or 2 |
| 20 |
0 (following) (used for plastering houses) |
| 21 |
2 or 3 |
| 22 |
2? |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
1 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Land sales (banned 1974) Diminishing grazing
land? |
| 27 |
Fattening bulls, oxen |
| 28 |
83% hh heads visit market once or twice weekly.
Export of livestock products, honey in exchange for food, consumer goods. |
| 29 |
1 or 2 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
|
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
39 |
| 2 |
Cossins and Bekele, 1974 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, Tigray Province, Waq and Tembien |
| 4 |
7-800 mm (SAZ, B,M) |
| 5 |
Tigreans |
| 6 |
Waq - a dissected plateau. Tembien - a deep
basin. Rugged terrain, heavy erosion, flash floods. Terrace management of steep slopes. |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Tembien (higher) 4-7 cattle, 37-70
sheep/goats/middle income owner; Waq (lower) up to 15 cattle, up to 200 sheep/goats |
| 10 |
Wealth: richest 10% own x 4 average and poorest
40% as few as zero. Sheep ownership higher on highlands. Few women owners |
| 11 |
Browse lopping open access, daily grazing 6-8 km
(wet) several days away (dry) common or open access |
| 12 |
Individual ownership, heritable, saleable;
renting 1-3 years common |
| 13 |
milk, butter |
| 14 |
Sales of livestock essential in drought; wool
blankets sold |
| 15 |
Contingency investment essential |
| 16 |
Shepherd boys paid in animals, cash or milking.
Fallows leased to cattle owners for manure; crop divided |
| 17 |
2 (stubble cannot be privatised) |
| 18 |
0 or 1? |
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
2 |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
1 or 2 |
| 24 |
1 or 2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Arable expansion necessitates longer grazing
circuits |
| 27 |
Fattening sheep and goats for sale Labour
migration |
| 28 |
Livestock products, honey sold for food, consumer
goods. 45% Tembien farmers visit market weekly |
| 29 |
2 or 3 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Lopping and felling of browse trees in dry years.
Massive gully erosion. Terraces, restraining walls on gullies |
| 32 |
Loss of livestock; diminished market activity;
zero yields on up to 86% fields, permanent labour migration. |
| 1 |
41 |
| 2 |
Kjaerby, 1980 |
| 3 |
Tanzania, Hanang District |
| 4 |
(SAZ, B/U, M) |
| 5 |
Barbaig |
| 6 |
Impact of villagization on grazing system |
| 7 |
54,590 in 8,309 homesteads, expected to double in
20-25 years |
| 8 |
300,000 cattle, 100,000 small stock (author's
estimates) |
| 9 |
Cattle, small stock @ 36 cattle/hh of 6.6 people
and 12 small stock (calculated from author's figures) |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Common access grazing, not secure from registered
allocations to farms |
| 12 |
Government allocations |
| 13 |
Meat (slaughters on special occasions; dying
animals or diseased also) Milk |
| 14 |
Low offtake (2% cattle) but sold for food, to
finance implements, inputs or labour. Income of cattle keeping families is x 2 that of non
cattle owning families. Bridewealth. |
| 15 |
Cattle keeping the most reliable hedge against
shortfalls in crop production |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
|
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
|
| 21 |
|
| 22 |
|
| 23 |
|
| 24 |
'No form of integration between crop and cattle
production' instead, labour competition |
| 25 |
Villagization causing reverse dispersal of
population (below) |
| 26 |
Arable expansion driving grazing out of high
altitude dry-season pastures and away from villages; incoming cultivators and capitalist
farmers in villages |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
Govt. policy to increase cattle offtake is
resisted because (a) investment value of cattle (b) scarce commodity supply hence demand
for cash (c) dietary preference (milk). 1957-75 T of T moved against cattle (15-2 bags
maize) |
| 29 |
1 or 2 |
| 30 |
Move into maize cultivation (see 28) |
| 31 |
Herd mortality higher near villages than in
frontier areas due to overstocking; environmental consequences of un-integrated system |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
43 |
| 2 |
Cossins et al, 1984 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, Harerghe Province, Jijiga area |
| 4 |
700 mm (SAZ, B. M) |
| 5 |
Somali |
| 6 |
Flat topped limestone hills, calcareous soils.
Pediments, calcareous soils, erodible. Vertisols. Rainfall gradient from NW to SE |
| 7 |
|
| 8 |
50 animals/km2 (1971) |
| 9 |
Cattle, sheep, goats, camels; in 1971 farmers
herds in 3 clans included 30-75 sheep, 8-21 goats, 13-17 cattle and 1-3 camels |
| 10 |
Differences between clans and between farmers
(fewer camels, more cattle) and pastoralists |
| 11 |
Common access grazing |
| 12 |
Registered allocations to capitalist farmers
until 1974 |
| 13 |
Milk, meat |
| 14 |
|
| 15 |
Livestock are more important to their owners than
farming |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
Highlands West 2 Highland East 2 Jijiga Plains l
or 2 |
| 18 |
|
|
|
| 19 |
|
2? |
2? |
| 20 |
|
1 or 2? |
1? |
| 21 |
|
1 or 2 |
1 or 2 |
| 22 |
|
1 or 2 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
|
1 |
2 |
| 24 |
|
1 |
2 |
| 25 |
Incoming farmers |
| 26 |
Grazing land transferred to arable especially in
valley bottoms |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
Livestock sales to Somali Republic |
| 29 |
Highlands W 2 or 3 E 2 Jigiga Plainsl |
| 30 |
Tractor ploughing even though large-scale farming
abolished in 1975 |
| 31 |
Rangeland degradation is due to the timing of
grazing rather than the numbers of animals; overpopulated x 2 or x 3 (Pratt); annuals
replacing other grasses, palatables being eaten out; cultivation of unsuitable dry areas. |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
44 |
| 2 |
Timberlake and Jordao, 1985 |
| 3 |
Mozambique, Maputo, Gaza, Inhambane |
| 4 |
5-800 mm (SAZ, ST, M(D)) |
| 5 |
n.a. |
| 6 |
n.a. |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
6 cattle/km2 family sector decreasing
at 1% pa, 1977-83 |
| 9 |
Range from 2 to 16 cattle/family |
| 10 |
In southern 3 provinces, 7, 16, and 27% families
own cattle |
| 11 |
Communal areas - common access grazing for
sedentary or semi-nomadic |
| 12 |
|
| 13 |
Milk, meat |
| 14 |
Offtake about 4% cattle, only sold in special
circumstances. SR sold to meet current expenses |
| 15 |
Implied strongly |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
2? |
| 20 |
2 uncommonly |
| 21 |
1 |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
1 or 2 |
| 24 |
2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Abundance of grazing (and by implication arable)
land since S provinces are 50% understocked, but see 31 |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
Low offtake |
| 29 |
1? |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Overgrazing reported near water in communal
areas. Soil erosion advanced in 20% area |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
46 |
| 2 |
ARDA 1982-84 |
| 3 |
Zimbabwe, S Matabele land |
| 4 |
3-600 mm (SAZ, U/ST, D) Ecological Region IV/V |
| 5 |
Matabele |
| 6 |
Granite and gneiss variable sands, loamy sands.
Basalt clay complex soils, fertile.' Gold belt' complex, heavy, relatively fertile.
Deciduous tree savanna. Rainfall unreliable. |
| 7 |
25/km2 |
| 8 |
LU 8-38/km2 (2-11 ha/LU) |
| 9 |
Goats 3-8/hh, donkeys 4-6,-chickens 8-14, cattle
6-13, sheep 0-7, some pigs |
| 10 |
Goats, donkeys more numerous in Zone V; chickens,
cattle in Zone IV. Zone IV hh own more assets |
| 11 |
Communal grazing areas, no exclusive rights |
| 12 |
Family and individual lands held by virtue of
community membership, exclusive rights |
| 13 |
Milk, meat |
| 14 |
Offtake 6-10%; income used for (1) food
purchases, (2) school fees: (3) other needs |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
1 or 2 |
| 20 |
2 or 3 (depending on crop and zone - in Zone IV
use is 70-90% plots (highest maize); in Zone V 5-25% ('burns' crops) |
| 21 |
2 or 3 (oxen dominant in Zone IV, donkeys Zone V) |
| 22 |
2 or 3 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Commercial land occupies over 50% total |
| 27 |
1.2-1.7 males/hh and 1.2-2.2 females/hh away from
home, remitting. Cash income/hh and value of food production/hh both higher in Zone IV |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Attempts to introduce soil conservation measures
and to intensify management of arable on a smaller area have had little success.
Overstocking claims disputed by Sandford (1982) on absence of evidence of degradation |
| 32 |
60% hh reported livestock losses by death;
average reduction in all stock 50% in 12 months |
| 1 |
47 |
| 2 |
Steinfeld, 1988, Thiesen and Marasha, 1974 |
| 3 |
Zimbabwe, Chilimanzi, SE of Geweru |
| 4 |
700 mm (SAZ, U,M) Ecological zone III |
| 5 |
Shona |
| 6 |
Ferallitic sandy soils; depressions (vleis) |
| 7 |
50/km2 |
| 8 |
LU 8/km2 |
| 9 |
6.4 cattle/hh, 2.5 goats, 0.2 sheep, 0.4 donkeys,
some pigs |
| 10 |
Hh owning vlei land have larger herds. Men own
most stock, women may own small stock |
| 11 |
Communal grazing areas, no exclusive rights |
| 12 |
Family and individual lands held by virtue of
community membership, exclusive rights |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (small stock). Food less important
than crop inputs |
| 14 |
Livestock products least important source of
income. Goats sold for cash |
| 15 |
Needs for livestock primarily draft, transport
and subsistence but social security and sale value are significant, former for 'spiritual
integrity' |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
2 (progressive farmers), 20-25% total feed |
| 18 |
? but see 46,63 |
| 19 |
1 |
| 20 |
2 (incl. anthills) - more LUs = more manuring =
larger yields (total). 5-9 t/ha |
| 21 |
2 (75% owning - 3% use donkeys, 91% oxen) |
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Continuous arable encroachment on grazing |
| 27 |
Off-farm income 32%, remittances 13%, of crop
sales 49%, livestock products 6% of cash income. Vlei cultivators have more LUs more and
better literacy, child nutrition, and lower mortality. 40% male (adults) absent. 50%
family heads work for urban wages. |
| 28 |
3-9% cattle offtake, 11% goats. 76% families who
sell livestock have > 6LUs, the viability threshold |
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Severe erosion in grazing areas, sheet erosion
and gullying; vlei cultivation; abandonment of conservation; 'overstocking' |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
48 |
| 2 |
Steinfeld, 1988 |
| 3 |
Zimbabwe: Mberengwa, NE of Beitbridge |
| 4 |
520 mm (SAZ, U/ST, D) Ecological zone V |
| 5 |
Ndebele |
| 6 |
Ferallitic sandy soils; depressions (vleis) |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
LU 20/km2 |
| 9 |
4.9 cattle/hh, 10.3 goats, 1.9 donkeys, 0.1 sheep |
| 10 |
(see 46, 47, 63) Importance of goats and donkeys
reflects aridity. More non-owners than 47 |
| 11 |
Communal grazing areas, no exclusive rights |
| 12 |
Family and individual lands held by virtue of
community membership, exclusive rights |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (goats esp) More important than crop
input functions |
| 14 |
Livestock products least important. Goats sold
for cash needs |
| 15 |
Cattle - accumulated wealth, security |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
2 (2,000 kg DM/hh) <10% total feed |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
2 (4.7 t/ha) |
| 21 |
2 (56% owning) (21% using donkeys, 75% oxen) |
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2 Less crop/livestock integration than 47 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Continuous arable encroachment on grazing |
| 27 |
Off farm income 45% remittances 21% cf crop sales
29% and livestock prod. 4% of cash income |
| 28 |
Offtake - 7.6% (cattle), 15.3% (goats) i.e.
buying in cattle, post drought |
| 29 |
1 or 2 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
'Overstocking' but feed resources adequate summer
and 60% winter |
| 32 |
65% cattle losses in three years |
| 1 |
49 |
| 2 |
Little, 1983 |
| 3 |
Kenya, Baringo District, Njemps |
| 4 |
6-800 mm (SAZ, B,M) |
| 5 |
Il Chamus |
| 6 |
High rainfall variability |
| 7 |
range 8 - 66/km2 |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
|
| 10 |
Wealthy Il Chamus prefer irrigation (10% own 40%
land); the poor do dryland farming |
| 11 |
Common access grazings |
| 12 |
Irrigable plots allocated by elders or council.
Borrowing, purchase, Dryland plots used one year at a time, not heritable |
| 13 |
|
| 14 |
Cash from livestock sales is most important
source of income |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
2 or 3? |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
|
| 21 |
(some tractors) |
| 22 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
1 or 2 |
| 24 |
1 or 2 Labour bottlenecks Feb-Mar (dryland)
July-Aug (irrig) |
| 25 |
Permanent settlements for irrigation |
| 26 |
Irrigable land scarce. Irrigation on fringes of
swamps reduces dry season grazing |
| 27 |
Irrigation development may have reached its
limits and may jeopardise pastoralism in the long term |
| 28 |
T o T of livestock have declined in 25 years,
encouraging cultivation (cf. Barbaig) |
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
Increased irrigation and dryland farming |
| 31 |
|
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
50 |
| 2 |
Rukandema et al, 1983 |
| 3 |
Kenya, Southern Kitui District (2 locations) |
| 4 |
530,800 mm (SAZ, B. D/M) |
| 5 |
Akamba |
| 6 |
Slopes 2-160 with steep slopes to 50o. Seasonal
streams, acacia bush |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle, 11-12/farmer (?), sheep 7-11, goats 4-10,
donkeys, chickens |
| 10 |
SR holdings smaller in drier location. Fewer own
cattle, goats, sheep in drier location |
| 11 |
Common access grazings |
| 12 |
Registered title |
| 13 |
Milk (76=80%) farmers), meat |
| 14 |
Cash income 72-83% (higher in wetter location) |
| 15 |
Livestock valued for 'tradition' and 'breeding' |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1 or (20%) 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
2 by 25% (wetter) and 13% (drier) locations |
| 21 |
1 or 2 |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
2? |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
|
| 27 |
Off farm income more important than crops which
are more important than livestock |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
66-70% farmers cite erosion as most important
factor restricting soil productivity, 47-53% cite infertility. 23-31% farms wholly or
partly terraced |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
51 |
| 2 |
Rukandema et al, 1981 |
| 3 |
Kenya, S Machakos District |
| 4 |
777 mm (SAZ, B,M) |
| 5 |
Akamba |
| 6 |
Gently undulating. Sandy soils, vertisol patches,
seasonal streams, acacia bush |
| 7 |
|
| 8 |
100 LU/km2 |
| 9 |
Cattle 7/owner, 10 goats and 3-4 sheep/farm |
| 10 |
80% farmers own cattle, 82% goats, 49% sheep |
| 11 |
Common access grazing |
| 12 |
Registered title(?) including fallow |
| 13 |
Milk (73% cattle, 55% goat, 37% sheep owners) |
| 14 |
78% keep goats for sale, 44% sheep, 88% cattle |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
2 or 3 (92% feed) |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
2 or (8%) 3 |
| 20 |
2? (68% use) |
| 21 |
3 (78% own ploughs) |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
2 or 3 (80% keep on farm - incl. fallows and
stallfeeding, 10% - all year) |
| 24 |
2 or 3 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
|
| 27 |
Off-farm income greatest on smallest farms, next
on largest farms - 90% cf. gross farm income from crops and livestock |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
1 (26% farm land under cultivation) |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Erosion cited as principal factor limiting
productivity by 61% farmers, infertility by 41%. 'Extremely overstocked' |
| 32 |
Crop failure, increased dry planting |
| 1 |
53 |
| 2 |
Campbell, 1978; 1979; Bekure et al, 1987;
Holland, 1987 |
| 3 |
Kenya, Kajiado District, Loitokitok area |
| 4 |
3-600 mm (SAZ, B,D,) |
| 5 |
Maasai |
| 6 |
|
| 7 |
10/km2 |
| 8 |
38 TLU/km2 |
| 9 |
Cattle, sheep, goats |
| 10 |
86% own cattle, 80% own sheep and 80% goats |
| 11 |
Common access grazings, title to areas recognised |
| 12 |
Common access? Outsiders may purchase |
| 13 |
Milk, blood?, meat (occasions) |
| 14 |
Livestock sales provided 31% cash income |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
|
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
|
| 21 |
|
| 22 |
|
| 23 |
|
| 24 |
|
| 25 |
Non-Maasai farmer in-migrants since 1967 |
| 26 |
Loss of grazing land to cultivation and national
park, also private ranches and government |
| 27 |
Trading wage labour and wood/charcoal sales yield
36% cash income cf 31% from livestock sales, 10% from crop sales. |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
|
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
|
| 32 |
Increased cultivated area. Famine relief given to
fewer Maasai farmers (41%) than non-Maasai farmers (53%) or Maasai pastoralists (67%) -
diversification (see 27). Livestock losses |
| 1 |
54 |
| 2 |
Swallow et al, 1987 |
| 3 |
Lesotho (majority of samples in SAZ) |
| 4 |
(SAZ, ST, M) |
| 5 |
Basotho |
| 6 |
Mountainous terrain |
| 7 |
|
| 8 |
|
| 9 |
Ave. holdinjg 7.5 cattle, 54.6 sheep, 37.5 goats,
2.4 horses, 2.5 donkeys |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Common access to cattlepost grazing subject to
permits (all Basotho). Community access to village grazings subject to rotational use
controlled by chiefs. Community access to residues grazing. |
| 12 |
Individual or family |
| 13 |
Milk (cows, small amounts sheep/goats) meat
(sheep/goats, cattle rare except at ceremonies) offal, hides |
| 14 |
Milk sale rare; livestock sales and products |
| 15 |
Livestock valued after cash savings or loans for
meeting emergencies and for savings. Breeding principle reason given for owning all types. |
| 16 |
Mafisa system of entrustment during transhumance,
Oct-Jan to Apr-May |
| 17 |
1 or 2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
3 |
| 20 |
1 with collection, 36% hh use (used more for
plastering walls) |
| 21 |
3 |
| 22 |
3? |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
1 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
57-70% households consider summer, winter and
village grazing areas sufficient |
| 27 |
Miners' remittances most important source of
income, followed by others, livestock sales, crop/fodder sales, building/thatching |
| 28 |
Widespread use of financial institutions implied:
462 cattle managers sold 100 cattle in one year; 250 sheep sold 534; 235 goat sold 183. |
| 29 |
1 or 2 |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Regulation of grazing (see 11). Erosion rarely
seen as a constraint to livestock production |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
55 |
| 2 |
Carvalho, 1971 |
| 3 |
Angola SW - Cunene and Cuanhama regions |
| 4 |
500-650 mm (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Khumbi |
| 6 |
1000 m Erratic rainfall; transitional between C
highlands & drier SW. Evanda (floodplain grasslands) and etunda (upland deciduous
woodland, waterless in dry season plus chana (upland depressions) in Cunene; Cuanhama has
extensively flooded basin with islands - mufito |
| 7 |
15/km2 (Cunene) 33/km2
(Cuanhama) approx. |
| 8 |
15/km2 (Cunene) 20/km2
(Cuanhama) cattle only |
| 9 |
Cattle |
| 10 |
|
| 11 |
Common access grazing |
| 12 |
Common access farmland, usufructuary rights? |
| 13 |
Milk |
| 14 |
Sales of young animals for traction in C
Highlands |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
Herds of mixed ownership entrusted to herders who
receive milk, manure, draft and meat (fallen animals), occasional progeny |
| 17 |
1? |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0? |
| 20 |
1? |
| 21 |
1? |
| 22 |
1? |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
|
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Private ranch enclosures of community land;
access to water disrupted |
| 27 |
Farming fishing gathering plus grazing |
| 28 |
Livestock sales commercially integrated -
slaughter and traction animals |
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
Commercial ranching under the Portuguese |
| 31 |
Extensive ranching causes rangeland deterioration
but mobility of indigenous system permits high livestock and human densities |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
57 |
| 2 |
Gaosegelwe et al, 1983 |
| 3 |
Botswana, Ngamiland |
| 4 |
450-550 mm (SAZ U,D) |
| 5 |
Several |
| 6 |
Okavango swamps, upland perimeter; deep sandy
loams, clays |
| 7 |
Low |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Variable (see 10) |
| 10 |
29% farmers have no cattle, 41% 1-10 (male
headed, fewer none and more with 1-10 cf female headed) |
| 11 |
Common access grazing |
| 12 |
Privatised fields - wet or dry swamp fields
(molapo) dryland fields |
| 13 |
Milk (cows) |
| 14 |
|
| 15 |
Mines earnings and crop sales income invested in
cattle |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
|
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
|
| 21 |
2 or 3 (varies among villages) |
| 22 |
1 |
| 23 |
2 (cattlepost system) |
| 24 |
|
| 25 |
Refugees from Angola - farmers - in addition to
local livestock specialists and mixed farmers |
| 26 |
Molapo land becoming scarce (increased demand,
less water) |
| 27 |
Mines labour; all hh engage in major off-farm
activities to supplement incomes and spread risks by diversification |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
1 |
| 30 |
Wet molapo land receives priority (scramble) |
| 31 |
Reduced inflow to Okavango Delta. Concentration
of cattle near water courses, local range deterioration |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
59 |
| 2 |
Miller and Seleka, 1985; Gray, 1985 |
| 3 |
Botswana, Tutume District |
| 4 |
3-500 mm (SAZ, B/ST, D) |
| 5 |
Bakalanga |
| 6 |
|
| 7 |
|
| 8 |
|
| 9 |
Cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, chickens; 18 SR/hh |
| 10 |
16-46% hh own no cattle, 86% no donkeys, 16% no
SR, 3-10% no chickens |
| 11 |
Common access grazing |
| 12 |
Community access to arable |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (38% use cattle meat, 94% use SR milk,
80% use meat) |
| 14 |
Sales of milk or cattle <10% hh. Small stock |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
|
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
1 or 2 (3-11% hh use manure) |
| 21 |
3 |
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
2 (cattle post system) |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
|
| 27 |
78% hh have >3 income sources; in 41% primary
income source; 82% have >1 member earning wages away |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
|
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
|
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
60 |
| 2 |
Teitelbaum, 1984 |
| 3 |
Sudan, N. Kordofan Province |
| 4 |
3-400 mm (SAZ, U. D) |
| 5 |
Baggara (Hawazma) |
| 6 |
Cracking days, stabilised qoz sands |
| 8 |
|
| 9 |
Cattle, camels, goats, sheep, donkeys |
| 10 |
Mobility: transhumant nomads have largest cattle
herds: >100 transhumant farmers: '100 head sedentary farmers: <20 head, some have SR
only |
| 11 |
Open access grazing |
| 12 |
Lineage title to cropland |
| 13 |
Milk, meat (occasions). Those without cattle
receive milk from kinsmen |
| 14 |
|
| 15 |
Bridewealth. Livestock sales to purchase food,
esp. nomads |
| 16 |
Farmers split herds, and remain at home, but
Usually arranged within family. Fariq or cooperative transhumant group Sedentary farmers
manage farms for transhumant kin |
| 17 |
1 trending to 2 (some farmers attempt to sell) |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
|
| 20 |
1 |
| 21 |
1? |
| 22 |
3 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
1 |
| 25 |
Sedentarization of over half nomads with fewer
cattle; 'nomadization' of younger men trying to increase herds, incl. those traditionally
sedentary. |
| 26 |
Encroachment of mechanised cotton farms on
cracking clay grazings; horticulture near wells impedes access to water. Dry season
natural fodder shortage in S. Kordofan; wet season 'overgrazing' in N. Kordofan. |
| 27 |
Transhumant farmers diversify into trades, etc.
Nomads are the most specialised |
| 28 |
|
| 29 |
1, locally 2 |
| 30 |
(see 25) |
| 31 |
Range burning increases unpalateable species,
reduces cover, causes erosion; together with the loss of grazing land (see 26) stocking
burden on remaining pastures increases. |
| 32 |
Tree cutting for fuel removes browse |
| 1 |
61 |
| 2 |
Cook et al, 1984; Frankenberger et al., 1984 |
| 3 |
Sudan, N. Kordofan, El Obeid (50 km radius) |
| 4 |
347 mm (SAZ, U,D) |
| 5 |
Baggara? |
| 6 |
Clay soils, qoz soils: 35% reduction in rainfall |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Cattle 5/hh, sheep 5, goats 6, donkeys l, camels
0.5, horses 0.1, poultry |
| 10 |
90% farmers own livestock; 60% own no cattle,
(negatively correlated with wealth) 80% own goats; 72% own (usually) l donkey |
| 11 |
Open access grazing |
| 12 |
Owned and rented |
| 13 |
Milk |
| 14 |
Livestock (usually goats) sold to nomads in rains
to finance labour hiring; sold in village in dry season to finance food purchases |
| 15 |
Investment in animals is a response to
environmental uncertainty |
| 16 |
|
| 17 |
1 or 2; sorghum very important |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
3? Water melon used as fodder |
| 20 |
1? |
| 21 |
0 or 1 |
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
1 |
| 25 |
Village population fluctuates, highest in wet
(farming season) when nomads arrive from S. (see Case 60) |
| 26 |
Rangeland degradation and arable encroachment |
| 27 |
Nearly every family has off farm income - wage
migration, charcoal, water, trade, crafts, food |
| 28 |
Market interaction increases when nomads come;
increasing cultivation of sesame, groundnuts for the market |
| 29 |
1, locally 2? |
| 30 |
New crop preferences (see 28) |
| 31 |
'Tragedy of the commons' degradation |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
62 |
| 2 |
Bunderson et al 1986; Cook et al, 1984 |
| 3 |
Sudan, Kordofan, Nuba Mts. |
| 4 |
600-800 mm (SAZ, U,D,) |
| 5 |
Nuba (some Baggara) |
| 6 |
Catena from rocky hill slopes through sandy loam
lower slopes to cracking clays |
| 7 |
About 50/km2? |
| 8 |
About 50 LU/km2? |
| 9 |
Cattle 17/hh; goats 20; sheep, pigs |
| 10 |
Nuba own 30% of livestock (Baggara 70%) but grow
90% of crops |
| 11 |
Open access grazing, unmanaged, some group
autonomy through control of water |
| 12 |
Individual usufruct, heritable; sale, loan,
renting where scarce |
| 13 |
Milk, esp important in wet season camps. |
| 14 |
Milk rarely sold. Livestock sold to finance food
purchases |
| 15 |
Implied |
| 16 |
Herders take livestock to hill camps in wet (away
from crops, flies) |
| 17 |
1 incl. sorghum on clay soils; 2 (groundnut tops
only); |
| 18 |
0 or 1 |
| 19 |
0 |
| 20 |
1? 2 on house gardens (jubrakas) which may be
terraced |
| 21 |
0 |
| 22 |
1 or 2 |
| 23 |
1 |
| 24 |
1 or 2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
|
| 27 |
Charcoal, wood, timber, thatching, labour
migration, herding (for transhumants), irrigated gardens. |
| 28 |
Market production of livestock, larger herds than
formerly |
| 29 |
2? |
| 30 |
(See 27) Larger herds because of better security,
changing customs, easier access to water and grazing |
| 31 |
Southward desertification (See Case 60) |
| 32 |
|
| 1 |
63 |
| 2 |
Balderrama, et al. 1988; Cousins et al, 1989 |
| 3 |
Zimbabwe, Chivi South |
| 4 |
560 mm (SAZ, U,M) Ecological Region IV/V |
| 5 |
Shona |
| 6 |
Sandy soils (sandveld). Heavy soils (clayveld)
(depression (vlei) soils Rainfall varies between 200 and 100 mm |
| 7 |
55/km2 |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Goats, cattle, donkeys (frequency ownership
order); 2.4 cows/hh and 1.8 oxen/hh |
| 10 |
89% female headed hh own goats, 61% male |
| 11 |
Communal grazing areas, no exclusive rights |
| 12 |
Family and individual lands held by virtue of
community membership, exclusive rights |
| 13 |
Milk, (goats, socially improper) meat (goats,
mainly) |
| 14 |
Sales of goats, poultry ensure food security;
cattle owners plant more maize (risky) than millet; milk sales uncommon |
| 15 |
Cattle are valued for (a) savings and (b) draft |
| 16 |
Entrustment to caretakers of large herds who use
draft, manure and gain some progeny |
| 17 |
1 or 2 (12% total feed) |
| 18 |
2 (enthusiasm for fodder trees) |
| 19 |
1 or 2 |
| 20 |
1 sometimes 3. Ave. 10 t/ha (mostly maize). 57%
farmers carry termite mound soil to fields, 38% apply leaf litter |
| 21 |
2 (most use 4 animals, 50% cattle, 34% donkeys) |
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Arable percentage 36-42%, 1975-87, grazing
64-58%; arable includes 20-25% fallow. Expansion of private fields to adjacent grazing. |
| 27 |
40% hh have formal sector, 42% local wage labour,
80% self employed incomes. Oxen fattened by richer owners |
| 28 |
Offtake low but rises when herd exceeds 8 |
| 29 |
2 |
| 30 |
Commercial farmers cultivate vlei soils (banned
from 1960) |
| 31 |
Vlei soils damaged by deep cultivation, oxidation
of organic matter, decomposition, erosion. Traditional vlei ridging system abandoned.
Cattle damage to banks. Evidence of degradation of grazings is controversial (Cousins et
al) |
| 32 |
Average herd sizes fell, 1976-84 but percentage
of hh owning cattle, goats increased |
| 1 |
64 |
| 2 |
Carl Bro International, 1988 |
| 3 |
Senegal: Koungheul Arrondissement (6 villages) |
| 4 |
(SAZ, U.D) |
| 5 |
Wolof (90%); Peul Fulani (up to 10%) |
| 6 |
Laterite soils up to 40% yielding little natural
vegetation; sols dior (sandy) prevalent in north, sols dek (more clay) 50'% in south |
| 7 |
102,505 at 25-35/km2 |
| 8 |
|
| 9 |
Animals per hh in 8 villages; horses 1.3-3.8;
donkeys 0.1-1.0; sheep 4.3-8.6; goats 1.2-9.4; pairs of oxen (3 villages only) 0.3-2.2;
Cattle rare, poultry insignificant |
| 10 |
Wealthy minority own cattle, and Peul livestock
keepers including both farmers and (declining) transhumant pastoralists. SRs often belong
to women |
| 11 |
0A |
| 12 |
Arable rights issued by Conseil Rural, normally
restricted to community members |
| 13 |
|
| 14 |
Income from selling livestock products |
| 15 |
Cattle preferred as investments instead of draft,
realizeable in contingencies. SRs bought after harvest (Jan) also for investments.
Maintenance costs (fodder) reduced by grazing under entrustment. But thefts increasing. |
| 16 |
Peul herders hired for cattle; village SR flock
also herded for wages. Transhumant exchanges (residues and millet for milk and manure)
declining |
| 17 |
2 |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
2 |
| 20 |
2 |
| 21 |
3 (horses dominant for sowing and weeding) |
| 22 |
1 (donkeys) |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
|
| 26 |
Arable land scarce, especially for newcomers;
loaning common |
| 27 |
Wealthy diversify into trade and transport. Poor
diversify into firewood, charcoal, hay selling. Labour migration very widespread. Middle
income hhs depend most on groundnut sales |
| 28 |
Markets understocked with commodities and
oversupplied with livestock and produce. Trade liberalisation, removal of credit and
fertilizer subsidies is causing decline of groundnut production, demechanisation |
| 29 |
2 in N (60% area, 95% cultivable area); 3 in S.
(100% cultivable area); remainder pasture |
| 30 |
declining numbers of transhumant pastoralists and
decline in outherding owing to thefts |
| 31 |
Laterite soils so poor that useless even in wet
in some areas (causing use of reserved forests, lowlands for wet grazing) |
| 32 |
After aft, numbers of pastoralists increase;
fodder becomes very scarce |
| 1 |
65 |
| 2 |
Cossins 1971; Ellman 1971 |
| 3 |
Ethiopia, N.W.: Shire lowlands |
| 4 |
600 mm (SAZ, U. M/D) |
| 5 |
Eritreans, Tigreans |
| 6 |
Mountains, black soil flats |
| 7 |
n.a. |
| 8 |
n.a. |
| 9 |
Ave herd size 65 (39/owner) |
| 10 |
Eritreans own more cattle than Tigreans,
understand animal husbandry better, but second to Beni Amer |
| 11 |
Common access grazings |
| 12 |
Individual arable |
| 13 |
Milk, butter, seldom meat (except occasions) |
| 14 |
Cash income a major reason for keeping cattle |
| 15 |
Insurance (food supply) a major reason for
keeping cattle; breeding |
| 16 |
Herd boys tend animals belonging to several
owners in nearby common grazings. Share cropping |
| 17 |
2 (access to village livestock) |
| 18 |
|
| 19 |
0 |
| 20 |
1 |
| 21 |
1 or 2 |
| 22 |
2 |
| 23 |
2 |
| 24 |
2 |
| 25 |
In migration from Tigre and Eritrea of landless
people including share croppers |
| 26 |
Arable encroachments on village grazings |
| 27 |
|
| 28 |
Remote from markets? Beni Aver trade in surplus
grain |
| 29 |
2 (perhaps 40% cultivated) |
| 30 |
|
| 31 |
Grass cover deteriorates near wells and from year
to year |
| 32 |
|
