Diverse perceptions of ecosystem (dis)services in a Himalayan protected area

Protected areas are essential for balancing biodiversity conservation with the delivery of ecosystem services. However, despite extensive research on the economic valuation of these services, understanding local people's perceptions, particularly of ecosystem services and disservices, remains limited. Therefore, we assessed local perceptions and their socio-demographic determinants in Langtang National Park, a protected area in Nepal's Himalayan region. Ecosystem services and disservices were identified through a stakeholder consultation workshop. We conducted semi-structured interviews with 105 respondents. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses combined Fisher's exact test with Monte Carlo simulation (10,000 replicates), Cramer's V, and content analysis. The most highly regarded ecosystem services include drinking water (96 % of respondents), species and habitat conservation (92 %), air quality maintenance (91 %), protecting the environment for future generations (89 %), and water quality maintenance (89 %). The common ecosystem disservices include crop raiding by wildlife (93 %), allergies (58 %), and barriers to development and construction (48 %). Education and occupation are significantly associated with perceptions of ecosystem services, including carbon sequestration, air regulation, tourism, and research. Although ecosystem services are perceived to operate from local to global scales, disservices are mainly experienced at the local level. This emphasizes developing localized solutions in both national and international biodiversity conservation policies and practices, including indicators for ecosystem disservices.