Prevalence and risk factors of neglected zoonoses in Ethiopian small ruminants: a focus on Q fever, brucellosis, chlamydiosis, and toxoplasmosis

Neglected zoonoses, including Q fever, brucellosis, chlamydiosis, and toxoplasmosis, pose significant health risks to both animals and humans, particularly in low-resource settings. This study assessed their seroprevalence and risk factors in small ruminants across five Ethiopian districts. Among the 1,402 animals tested, 16.5% were seropositive for <i>Coxiella burnetii</i> (Q fever), 6.8% were seropositive for <i>Brucella</i> spp., 8.8% were seropositive for <i>Chlamydia abortus</i>, and 11.4% were seropositive for <i>Toxoplasma gondii</i>, with 5.3% showing mixed infections. At the flock level, 76.8% harbored at least one pathogen, and 45.2% tested positive for multiple infections. Mixed-effects logistic regression identified key risk factors. Animals in lowland pastoral systems had a significantly lower risk of <i>C. burnetii</i> exposure (OR: 0.2; 95% CI: 0.08–0.6, p = 0.01). Similarly, households that culled abortive animals presented a reduced infection risk (OR: 0.6; 95% CI: 0.4–0.9, p = 0.05). In contrast, the agropastoral system was linked to a lower likelihood of <i>Brucella</i> exposure (OR: 5.8; 95% CI: 2.1–16.5; p = 0.001). The risk of toxoplasmosis was greater in mixed crop–livestock systems (OR: 10.4; 95% CI: 1.0–109; p = 0.05) and sheep and goat mixed flocks (OR: 7.6; 95% CI: 1.0–61.2; P = 0.05). The high seroprevalence of these zoonoses in Ethiopian small ruminants underscores their significant public health and economic impact. The widespread flock-level burden and frequent coinfections highlight ongoing transmission risks, reproductive losses, and challenges in disease control. Variations in exposure across production systems emphasize the role of management practices in disease dynamics. Given the multipathogen burden, targeted interventions should move beyond single-disease approaches and adopt integrated control strategies within a One Health framework to mitigate risks for both livestock and human populations.